Publication Date
2026
Document Type
Article
English Abstract
Much of settler colonial theory and studies in Canada has focused on the dominant British settler colonial power, with an emerging spotlight on Quebec. Little attention has been paid to French-Canadian settler colonialism in French-Canadian minority provinces such as Ontario. This research aims to make visible this gap in attention and begin to fill in its contours by understanding how the French-Canadian settler colonial project operates in Ontario through law. Through the application of Indigenous, settler colonial, socio-legal and critical feminist and race theories to a review of narrative themes in the jurisprudence of courts and tribunals interpreting Ontario’s French Language Services Act, including the purposes of the Act, the vulnerability of Francophones and the role of Francophone institutions, the author endeavors to explore the unique ways in which settler colonial consciousness is deployed, reproduced and reinforced in law.
Citation Information
Woolnough, Monique.
"Reproducing the French-Canadian Settler Collective in Ontario through French Language Rights."
Journal of Law and Social Policy
38.
(2026): 64-86.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.60082/0829-3929.1516
https://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/jlsp/vol38/iss1/5
References
1 Lalonde v Ontario (Commission de restructuration des services de santé), [1999] OJ No 4488 (ON SCDC) at para 10 [Lalonde Div Ct].
2 A pair of cases that successfully stopped the Ontario government from restructuring Ottawa’s Hôpital Montfort such that it would lose its French character: Lalonde Div Ct, supra note 1; Lalonde v Ontario (Commission de restructuration des services de santé), [2001] OJ No 4767 (ON CA) [Lalonde ONCA]; for reference to le dossier Montfort see Anne Gilbert, “La signature frontalière de l’identité franco-ontarienne” (2012) 34 Francophonies d’Amérique 137.
3 Lalonde Div Ct, supra note 1.
4 Ibid.
5 The choice of the phrase “French-Canadian” over Franco-Ontarian or the more inclusive French-speaking or Francophone will be explored in the text.
6 Calder v British Columbia (AG), [1973] SCR 313 at para 328; Pastion v Dene Tha’ First Nation, [2018] 4 FC 467 at para 8 citing Mitchell v Minister of National Revenue, 2001 SCC 33 at para 10.
7 For a definition of settler moves to innocence, see Eve Tuck & Wayne K Yang, “Decolonization is not a metaphor” (2012) 1:1 Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education and Society 1 at 17.
8 French Language Services Act, RSO 1990, c F 32.
9 For discussions of settler moves to innocence and settler futurity, see Tuck & Yang, supra note 7 at 17, 35, respectively. For discussions of the role of disavowal in settler colonialism, see Sherene Razack, “When Place becomes Race” in Sherene Razack, ed, Race, Space and the Law: Unmapping a White Settler Society (Toronto: Between the Lines, 2002) 1 at 2; Lorenzo Veracini, Settler Colonialism: a theoretical overview (Houndmills: Basingstoke, 2010) at 14, 24. Naming the erasure of dispossession, theft and legislative attempts to erase Indigenous peoples, see Bonita Lawrence, “Rewriting histories of the Land: Colonization and Indigenous Resistance in Eastern Canada” in Sherene Razack, ed, Race, Space and the Law: Unmapping a White Settler Society (Toronto: Between the Lines, 2002) 21 at 23.
10 Adam J Barker, “The Contemporary Reality of Canadian Imperialism: Settler Colonialism and the Hybrid Colonial State” (2009) 33:3 American Indian Quarterly 325 at 329.
11 Ibid at 339.
12 Ibid.
13 Ibid.
14 Serge Dupuis, “Sudbury’s Francophones: A Brief History,” (June 2021) Commissioned by L’Association Canadienne-française de l’Ontario du grand Sudbury at 36, online: [perma.cc/VU3N-ML5B].
15 Gilbert, supra note 2 at 137.
16 “Francophone” and “French-speaking” are both used in provincial and federal language to acknowledge the diversity within French-speaking communities; “French-speaking” is the language used in the preamble to French Language Services Act, supra note 8.
17A binary reinforced in part by some of the seminal theorists in settler colonial studies, see for example Lorenzo Veracini, “Introduction: Settler Colonialism as a Distinct Mode of Domination” in Edward Cavanagh & Lorenzo Veracini, eds, The Routledge Handbook of the History of Settler Colonialism (New York: Routledge, 2017) 1 at 4.
18 Jody Byrd, The transit of empire: Indigenous critiques of colonialism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011) at xix; Byrd borrowed this term from Edward Kamau Brathwaite, The Arrivants: A New World Trilogy—Rights of Passage / Islands / Masks (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988) at 11.
19 Jane Cary & Ben Silverstein, “Thinking with and beyond Settler Colonial studies: New Histories after the Postcolonial” (2020) 23:1 Postcolonial Studies 1 at 10-11.
20 Amal Madibbo, Blackness and la Francophonie: Anti-Black Racism, Linguicism and the Construction and Negotiation of Multiple Minority Identities (Québec: Presses de l’Université Laval, 2021) at 8.
21 Ibid at 133.
22 Ibid at 3. 23 Anne Levesque, “Les francophones oubliés?: L’intersectionnalité et la mise en oeuvre des droits linguistiques législatifs hors Québec” (2022) 34:2 Canadian Journal of Women and the Law 246 at 276 [“Francophones Oubliés”]; Anne Levesque, “French language rights and the community legal clinic system” (Presentation delivered to
community legal clinic managers, Association of Community Legal Clinics of Ontario, April 25 2024) [“French and CLCs”].
24 Levesque, “Francophones Oubliés”, supra note 23 [translated by author].
25 For comments on whiteness and Francophone identity, see Corrie Scott, “How French Canadians became White Folks, or Doing Things with Race in Quebec” (2016) 39:7 Ethnic and Racial Studies 1280; Levesque, “Francophones Oubliés”, supra note 23. For demographic statistics on Francophones in Ontario, see Ministry of Francophone Affairs, “Profile of the Francophone population in Ontario-2016” (29 July 2021), online: [perma.cc/2A9P-9DN5].
26 Ministry of Francophone Affairs, supra note 25.
27 Ibid.
28 Statistics Canada, “Aboriginal peoples and language” 2011 National Household Survey (25 July 2018), online: [perma.cc/Z5DM-2M79].
29 See Madibbo, supra note 20; Scott, supra note 25; Levesque, “Francophones Oubliés”, supra note 23.
30 Alexandre Baril defines anglonormativity as “a system of structures, institutions, and beliefs that marks English as the norm. In Anglonormative contexts, Anglonormativity is the standard by which non-Anglophone people are judged, discriminated against, and excluded.” Alexandre Baril, “Intersectionality, Lost in Translation? (Re)thinking intersections between Anglophone and Francophone intersectionality” (2017) 38:1 Atlantist 125 at 127, online: [perma.cc/VE5C-9TQG].
31 See for example Lorenzo Veracini’s description of the appropriation of “Canadien,” initially used by French-Canadians to describe Indigenous people (supra note 9 at 24, 48; see also Shiri Pasternak, Grounded Authority: The Algonquins of Barriere Lake against the State (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2017); Trycia Bazinet, “Tracing Understandings of Sovereignty and Settler-Colonial Violence in the Quebec’s Viens Commission (2016-2019)” (2022) 13:2 Settler Colonial Studies 174; Adam Gaudry & Darryl Leroux, “White Settler Revisionism and Making Métis Everywhere: The Evocation of Métissage in Quebec and Nova Scotia” (2017) 3:1 Critical Ethnic Studies 116.
32 Tuck & Yang, supra note 7 at 21; see also Veracini, supra note 9 at 13.
33 Ibid.
34 Lorena Sekwan Fontaine, “Our languages are sacred: Finding constitutional space for Aboriginal language rights (PhD Thesis, University of Manitoba Department of Peace and Conflict Studies, 2018) [unpublished] at 82, online: [https://perma.cc/98CF-QYW9].
35 Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future: Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (Winnipeg: Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2015) at 80, 153.
36 National Inquiry on Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report on the National Inquiry on Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, Vol. 1a (Ottawa: National Inquiry on Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, 2019) at 261.
37 Supra note 20 at 118.
38 Levesque, “Francophones Oubliés”, supra note 23 at 276.
39 See for example Fontaine, supra note 34 at 10, 108, 125.
40 For an in-depth articulation of Canada’s multi-juridical constitution, see John Borrows, Canada’s Indigenous Constitution, (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2010); for a discussion by the Supreme Court on the braiding of distinct legal traditions within the Canadian constitutional context, see Reference re An Act respecting First Nations, Inuit and Métis children, youth and families, 2024 SCC 5 at paras 7, 90, 131. Levesque has also argued that French language rights can support Indigenous language rights, Levesque, “French and CLCs”, supra note 23.
41 Fontaine, supra note 34 at 10, 108.
42 Supra note 35 at 156.
43 Levesque, “French and CLCs”, supra note 23.
44 Eva Mackey, The House of Difference: Cultural Politics and National Identity in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002) at 15, 25-26.
45 Jeff Benvenuto, Andrew Woolford & Alexander L Hinton, “Introduction: Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America” in Andrew Woolford, Jeff Benvenuto & Alexander Laban Hinton, eds, Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America (Durham: Duke University Press, 2014) 1 at 4.
46 Mackey, supra note 44 at 16.
47 Ibid at 15.
48 A concept coined to describe the experiences of women claiming marginality to erase their subordination of other women in Mary Louise Fellows & Sherene Razack, “The race to innocence: Confronting hierarchical relations among women” (1998) 1:4 The Journal of Gender, Race & Justice 335 at 335.
49 See Gilbert, supra note 2 at 143. This study repeats the myth that Franco-Ontarians in Ontario are in “their own territories” [translated by author].
50 Darryl Leroux, “‘We’ve Been Here for 2,000 Years’: White Settlers, Native American DNA and the Politics of Indigeneity” (2018) 48:1 Social Studies of Science 80 at 80.; see also Scott, supra note 25 at 1283.
51 Supra note 31 at 4.
52 Ibid.
53 Ibid.
54 The Free Grants and Homestead Act of 1868, SO 1868, c 8.
55 Ibid, s 9; Joseph D Conwill, “Return to the Land: Quebec’s Colonisation Movement” History Today (April 1984) at 16, online: [perma.cc/E28Y-BJVC]; Dupuis, supra note 14 at 11 [n.b. Dupuis’ manuscript mistakenly says that fee simple was granted in exchange for the clearing of six hectares, not fifteen].
56 Dupuis, supra note 14 at 11; Bazinet, supra note 31 at 2.
57 Dupuis, supra note 14 at 7-8.
58 An Act Respecting Mining Companies, RSO 1877, c 156.
59 Dupuis, supra note 14 at 9.
60 Supra note 20 at 89; see also Scott, supra note 25 at 1285 for a discussion of political cartoons depicting Francophones as not quite white during the nineteenth century.
61 Scott, supra note 25 at 1283.
62 Ibid.
63 Mackey, supra note 44 at 31.
64 Ibid.
65 Ibid at 32.
66 David B MacDonald, “Genocide in the Indian Residential Schools: Canadian History through the Lens of the UN Genocide Convention” in Andrew Woolford, Jeff Benvenuto & Alexander Laban Hinton, eds, Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America (Durham: Duke University Press, 2014) 306 at 318. MacDonald uses the Anishinaabe word Shognosh “to refer to Canada’s European settler populations as well as multi-cultural people like [him] who are assimilated into European ways of thinking and acting” (307).
67 James Sa’ke’j Youngblood Henderson, “‘Creating Inclusive Canadian Federalism’ in Amy Swiffen & Joshua Nichols, eds, Indigenous Peoples and the Futures of Canadian Federalism (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2024) at 13.
68 Dupuis, supra note 14 at 10.
69 Ontario Department of Education, “Instructions 17: Circular of Instruction No. 17 for Ontario Separate Schools for the School Year 1912–1913” (June 1912), online [perma.cc/KE2H-9JG4]; Lalonde Div Ct supra note 1 at paras 11, 13.
70 Scott, supra note 25 at 1290-1293.
71 Baril, supra note 30.
72 Scott, supra note 25 at 1293.
73 Constitution Act, 1867 (UK), 30 & 31 Vict, c 3, s 91, reprinted in RSC 1985, Appendix II, No 5,
S 133 [Constitution Act, 1867] and expanded on by Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (UK), 1982, c 11, s 23.
74 Adam Barker, Tobby Rollo, & Emma Battell Lowman, “Settler Colonialism and the Consolidation of Canada in the Twentieth Century” in Edward Cavanagh & Lorenzo Veracini, eds, The Routledge Handbook of the History of Settler Colonialism (New York City: Routledge, 2017) 153 at 161.
75 Franco-Ontarian Emblem Act, RSO 2001, c 5 [Emblem Act, 2001].
76 Franco-Ontarian Day Act, RSO 2010, c 4 [Day Act, 2010].
77 Emblem Act, 2001, supra note 75, Preamble.
78 Day Act, 2010, supra note 76, Preamble.
79 Veracini, Settler Colonialism, supra note 9 at 15; Tuck and Yang, supra note 7 at 21.
80 Veracini, Settler Colonialism, supra note 9 at 103.
81 Ibid at 15; Tuck and Yang, supra note 7 at 22; for an in-depth exploration of the normalization of Indigenous pathology and death as the inevitable result of the clash of two worlds, see Sherene Razack, Dying from Improvement: Inquests and Inquiries into Indigenous Deaths in Custody (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2015).
82 Tuck and Yang, supra note 7 at 22
83 Ibid.
84 Ibid at 17.
85 Ibid.
86 Ibid at 16.
87 Veracini, Settler Colonialism, supra note 9 at 14.
88 Razack, “When Place Becomes Race”, supra note 9 at 1.
89 Mariful Alam, Patrick Dwyer, & Katrin Roots, “Socio-legal Perspectives on Law’s Violence” in Mariful Alam, Patrick Dwyer and Katrin Roots, eds, Violence, Imagination, and Resistance: Socio-Legal Interrogations of Power (Athabasca: Athabasca University Press, 2023) 1 at 5.
90 Ibid at 3.
91 Notably, the first residential school pre-dates Confederation and was a French Roman Catholic School outside Québec City; for this and a discussion of violence against children for not speaking French, see Truth and Reconciliation Commission, supra note 35 at 50, 82, 153. For more discussion of violence against children for not speaking French or English, see Fontaine, supra note 34 at 85, 91.
92 Stacy Douglas, “Jurisfiction and other Settler-Colonial Legal Imaginaries” in Mariful Alam, Patrick Dwyer and Katrin Roots, eds, Violence, Imagination, and Resistance: Socio-Legal Interrogations of Power (Athabasca: Athabasca University Press, 2023) 59 at 72-73 citing John Borrows, Recovering Canada: The Resurgence of Indigenous Law (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002).
93 Ibid.
94 Sherene Razack, Looking White People in the Eye: Gender, Race and Culture in Courtrooms and Classrooms (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998) at 40.
95 Sherene Razack, “Gendered Racial Violence and Spatialized Justice: The Murder of Pamela George” in Sherene Razack, ed. Race, Space and the Law: Unmapping a White Settler Society (Toronto: Between the Lines, 2002) 123-136.
96 Ibid at 126-127; applying the outsider jurisprudence methodology first articulated by Mari Matsuda, “Public Response to Racist Speech: Considering the Victim's Story” (1989) 87 Michigan Law Review at 2322.
97 Re Regulation and Control of Aeronautics in Canada, 1931 CanLII 466 (UK JCPC), [1932] AC 54 at para 70, 101 LJPC 1; affirmed by the Supreme Court of Canada in Reference re Authority of Parliament in Relation to the Upper House (S. 55), [1980] 1 SCR 54 at para 71, 1979 CanLII 169 (SCC), 102 DLR (3d) 1.
98 Lalonde ONCA supra note 2 at para 85 citing Trustees of the Roman Catholic Separate Schools for the City of Ottawa v. Mackell, 1916 CanLII 418 (UK JCPC), [1917] AC 62, 86, LJPC 65 (PC).
99 Lalonde ONCA, supra note 2 at para 85.
100 Ibid. 101 Mahe v Alberta, 1990 CanLII 133 (SCC), [1990] 1 SCR 342 at para 365 [Mahe]; see also David Leitch, “Canada’s Native Languages: The Right of First Nations to Educate Their Children in Their Own Languages”, (2006)15-3 Constitutional Forum 107 at 116, online: .
102 Reference re Manitoba Language Rights, 1985 CanLII 33 (SCC) at para 46; see also Mahe, supra note 101 at para 362; Ford v Quebec (Attorney General), 1988 CanLII 19 (SCC) at paras 748-49 [Ford].
103 Reference re Secession of Quebec, 1998 CanLII 793 (SCC ) at para 96.
104 Larry Chartrand, “Indigenous Peoples: Caught in a Perpetual Human Rights Prison” (2016) 67(1) University of New Brunswick Law Journal 167 at 184.
105 Ibid at 185.
106 Official Languages Directorate, Justice Canada, Annotated Language Laws of Canada: Constitutional, Federal, Provincial and Territorial Laws (2019), (Montreal: Department of Justice Canada, 2017), online: .
107 Courts of Justice Act, RSO 1990, c C 43 [Courts of Justice Act].
108 Belende v Patel, 2008 ONCA 148 at para 24 [Belende].
109 Human Rights Code, RSO 1990, c H 19 [HRC].
110 See for example Guay v Commission de la sécurité professionnelle et d’assurance contre les accidents du travail, 2011 HRTO 1216 [Guay]; Lang v Ontario (Community and Social Services), 2003 HRTO 8 [Lang]; Morin v Kaymic Developments, 2015 HRTO 1354 [Morin].
111 Lalonde ONCA, supra note 2 at paras 2 and 92; This distinction between the quasi-constitutional but not constitutional nature of the FLSA seems to have informed the Ontario Court of Justice when distinguishing the quasi-constitutional nature of healthcare services in French and a French training hospital from unilingual parking signs in Toronto in City of Toronto v Braganza, 2011 ONCJ 657 [Braganza].
112 Lalonde ONCA, supra note 2 at paras 125, 132, followed in Canadians for Language Fairness v Ottawa (City), 2006 CanLII 33668 (ON SC) at para 88 [Canadians for Language Fairness].
113 Lalonde ONCA, supra note 2 at para 141.
114 Scott, supra note 25 at 1283.
115 Mackey, supra note 44 at 14.
116 Ibid.
117 Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism (Ottawa: Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, 1969); Mackey, supra note 44 at 55.
118 Sunera Thobani, Exalted Subjects: Studies in the Making of Race and Nation in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2011) at 145; see also Himani Bannerji, The Dark Side of the Nation: Essays on Multiculturalism, Nationalism and Gender (Toronto: Canadian Scholars Press, 2000).
119 Mahe, supra note 101 at para 362; see also Lalonde Div Ct, supra note 1 at para 44.
120 French Language Services Act, supra note 8, Preamble.
121 Lalonde ONCA, supra note 2 at para 145.
122 Levesque, “Francophones Oubliés”, supra note 23 at 261 [translated by author].
123 Ibid at 261-262. The purposes of federal immigration acts have included the development of minority language communities since 1976. See Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, SC 2001, c 27, s 3(1)(b.1), Immigration Act 1976-1977, RSC 1985, c I-2 at S.3 (a) and (b.)
124 Madibbo, supra note 20 at 133.
125 Lalonde Div Ct, supra note 1 at para 65.
126 Lalonde ONCA, supra note 2 at para 143.
127 Ibid; for another reference to equality with English, see also Canadians for Language Fairness, supra note 112 at para 92.
128 Lalonde ONCA, supra note 2 at para 181.
129 Dehenne v Dehenne, 1999 CanLII 15118 (ON SC) at para 5.
130 Amrane v Abraham, 2020 ONSC 6718 at para 3.
131 Residence St.-Louis v Assoc des infirmières et infirmiers de Ontario, 2011 CarswellOnt 104 (ON LA) at para 13.
132 Canadians for Language Fairness, supra note 112 at para 32.
133 Ibid at para 33.
134 Gigliotti v Conseil d'administration du Collège des Grands Lacs, 2005 CanLII 23326 (ON SCDC) at para 45 [Gigliotti].
135 Ibid.
136 Lalonde Div Ct, supra note 1 at 3.
137 Ibid.
138 Giroux v Ontario, 2005 CanLII 22131 (ON SCDC) at para 7 [Giroux].
139 Tuck and Yang supra note 7; Razack, “When Place Becomes Race”, supra note 9; Veracini, Settler Colonialism, supra note 9.
140 Lalonde Div Ct, supra note 1 at para 75.
141 Lalonde ONCA, supra note 2 at para 7.
142 Giroux, supra note 138 at para 7.
143 Ibid at para 6; see also Galganov v Russell (Township), 2012 ONCA 409 at paras 7, 75 [Galganov].
144 Laurentian University v Sudbury University, 2021 ONSC 3392 at para 51 [Laurentian]; Lalonde Div Ct, supra note 1 at para 16.
145 Giroux, supra note 138 at para 7.
146 Laurentian, supra note 144 at para 52.
147 Jenny Lamothe, “Faculty Worried About the Future of University of Sudbury’s Groundbreaking Indigenous Studies Program”, Sudbury.com (7 April 2021), online: Sudbury.com [perma.cc/JEN3-EHA6]; Sudbury.com staff, “University of Sudbury Transfers Indigenous Studies to Kenjgewin Teg Institute”, Sudbury.com (8 October 2021), online: Sudbury.com [perma.cc/C2DC-UWRH]; Serge Miville, “Opinion: The storied and unfinished history of the University of Sudbury”, Sudbury.com (11 November 2021), online: Sudbury.com [perma.cc/UM42-QPX3].
148 Laurentian, supra note 144 at para 51.
149 Gigliotti, supra note 134 at para 48.
150 Ibid.
151 Lalonde Div Ct, supra note 1 at para 14, 15.
152 Ibid at para 16.
153 Ibid.
154 Ibid at para 84.
155 Ibid at para 83.
156 Leitch, supra note 101 at 116.
157 Ibid.
158 Lalonde Div Ct, supra note 1 at para 10.
159 Nikolas Rose & Mariana Valverde, “Governed by Law?” (1998) 7:4 Soc & Leg Stud 541 at 542.
160 Tuck and Yang, supra note 7 at 18; Larry Chartrand, “Indigenous Peoples: Caught in a Perpetual Human Rights Prison” (2016) 67:1 University of New Brunswick Law Journal 167 at 281.
161 Laura Hall, “Indigenist Intersectionality: Decolonizing an Indigenous Eco-Queer Feminism and Anarchism” (2016) Perspectives on Anarchist Theory 29, online: .
162 Razack, Looking White People, supra note 94 at 28.
163 Ibid.
164 Phil Henderson, “Imagoed Communities: The Psychosocial Space of Settler Colonialism” (2017) 7:1 Settler Colonial Studies 40 at 51-52.
165 Ibid at 50-51.
166 Ibid.
167 Ibid citing Paulette Regan, Unsettling the Settler Within: Indian Residential Schools, Truth Telling and Reconciliation in Canada (Ann Arbor, MI: Proquest, 2010).
168 Tuck & Yang, supra note 7 at 35.
169 Robert Cover, Narrative, Violence and the Law: The Essays of Robert Cover, Martha Minow, Michael Ryan & Austin Sarat, eds (Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press, 1992) at 207; for Cover’s concept of world that is and world that might be and the metaphor of the bridge, see same at 101, 176.
170 Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, supra note 35; National Inquiry on Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, supra note 36; National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, A Legal Analysis of Genocide: Supplementary Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls (Ottawa: National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, 2019).
171 Darryl Leroux and Lynn Caldwell, “The Settler-Colonial Imagination: Comparing Commemoration in Saskatchewan and Québec” (2017) 12:4 Memory Studies 451-464 at 462.
172 See Hall, supra, note 161 for their discussion of the Kuswentha or Two-Row Wampum; see Henderson, supra note 166 for their proposals for treaty federalism.
173 Supra note 66 at 318.