Document Type
Article
English Abstract
Very little scholarship has specifically considered the phenomenon of eviction as a colonial process, or examined the role of the eviction legal system in reproducing colonial structures and relations. Our aim in this article is to address this gap and thereby extend to the eviction legal system context the work of scholars who have theorized the colonialism of the criminal justice, child welfare, and carceral systems. This article begins with an overview of current issues relating to urban Indigenous housing in Canada. The next section introduces Indigenous concepts of home and homelessness, which are distinct from dominant understandings. We then place the discussion within the larger context of settler colonialism and critiques of this relation of power. We look specifically at Indigenous conceptions of home and homelessness, as well as how settler colonialism has shaped dominant ideas about property and ownership that underlie the right to evict in Canadian law. The paper then turns to a discussion of how the eviction legal system functions in a “classical” colonial sense to both destabilize and dispossess Indigenous families, and to reinscribe settler claims to property. Fundamentally, we believe there is a need for research and storytelling about the relationship between Indigenous peoples and eviction legal systems in Canada, and we think there is room to imagine decolonizing the eviction legal system.
Citation Information
Buhler, Sarah and Barkaskas, Patricia.
"The Colonialism of Eviction."
Journal of Law and Social Policy
36.
(2023): 23-43.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.60082/0829-3929.1450
https://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/jlsp/vol36/iss1/3
References
1 Financial Security Program & Dyvonne Body, "A Glimpse into the Eviction Crisis: Why Housing Stability Deserves Greater Attention" (24 July 2019), online: [www.aspeninstitute.org/blog-posts/a-glimpse-into-the-eviction-crisis-why-housing-stability-deserves-greater-attention] [perma.cc/8T84-NQTR].
2 See Sarah Zell & Scott McCullough, "Evictions and Eviction Prevention in Canada" (Winnipeg: Institute of Urban Studies, The University of Winnipeg, 2020) at 37-39; Kathryn A Sabbeth, "Housing Defense as the New Gideon" (2018) 41:1 Harv JL & Gender 55 at 64-69; Matthew Desmond & Rachel T Kimbro, "Eviction's Fallout: Housing, Hardship, and Health" (2015) 94:1 Soc Forces 295 https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sov044; Chester Hartman & David Robinson, "Evictions: the Hidden Housing Problem" (2003) 14:4 Housing Policy Debate 461 at 468 https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.2003.9521483;
Alexandra B Collins et al, "Surviving the Housing Crisis: Social Violence and the Production of Evictions among Women who use Drugs in Vancouver, Canada" (2018) 51 Health & Place 174 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2018.04.001; Rebecca Zivanovic et al, "Eviction and Loss of Income Assistance Among Street-involved Youth in Canada" (2016) 37 J Public Health Policy 244. https://doi.org/10.1057/jphp.2016.12
3 See Emily Paradis & Tracy Heffernan, "Preventing Homelessness by Preventing Eviction," (24 November 2016), online: [www.homelesshub.ca/blog/preventing-homelessness-preventing-eviction] [perma.cc/NN3C-9GX8].
4 See Sabbeth, supra note 2; Sabbeth notes that "[l]oss of housing visits ripple effects on society" (ibid at 64).
5 See Silas Xuereb, Andrea Craig & Craig Jones, "Understanding Evictions in Canada through the Canadian Housing Survey", Housing Research Collaborative, University of British Columbia (September 2021) at 11, online (pdf): [https://housingresearch.ubc.ca/sites/default/files/documents/understanding_evictions_in_canada_2021.pdf] [https://perma.cc/48VD-BKK5]; Acacia Consulting and Research, "Policy Discussion Paper on Eviction and Homelessness: Stakeholder perspectives on a role for human resources & social development Canada" (30 November 2006) at 3, online (pdf): [homelesshub.ca/sites/default/files/policy_discussion_paper_on_eviction_and_homlessness.pdf] [perma.cc/WM27-R6AH]; John Ecker, Sarah Holden & Kaitlin Schwan, "An Evaluation of the Eviction Prevention in the Community (EPIC) Program" (2018) at 5, online (pdf): [www.toronto.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/8ea4-EPIC_Summary_Report_AODA.pdf] [perma.cc/F2KF-VX28]; Emily Paradis, "Access to Justice: The Case for Ontario Tenants Final Report of the Tenant Duty Counsel Review," (2016) at 32, online (pdf): Advocacy Centre for Tenants Ontario [www.acto.ca/production/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/TDCP_Report_2016.pdf] [perma.cc/QP7F-D8PN]; Ephraim Vecina, "Lack of Housing Places Indigenous peoples at Extreme Risk" (23 Oct 2019) online: Canadian Mortgage Professional [www.mortgagebrokernews.ca/news/lack-of-housing-places-indigenous-peoples-at-extreme-risk-321150.aspx] [perma.cc/NEU8-4Z8F]. As well, see discussion below.
6 See generally Native Women's Association of Canada, "Indigenous Housing: Policy and Engagement. Final Report to Indigenous Services Canada" (30 March 2020) at 4, online (pdf): [www.nwac.ca/assets-knowledge-centre/Indigenous-Housing-Policy-and-Engagement-%E2%80%93-Final-Report-to-Indigenous-Services- Canada.pdf] [perma.cc/HL73-6HTB].
7 Ibid at 6.
8 Thistle, "Definition of Indigenous Homelessness in Canada" (Toronto: Canadian Observatory on Homelessness Press, 2017) at 14, online (pdf): [www.homelesshub.ca/sites/default/files/COHIndigenousHomelessnessDefinition.pdf] [perma.cc/6C42-R8EA].
9 Ibid.
10 Azeezah Kanji and AJ Withers provide a recent exception to this general observation, discussing the links between colonialism and eviction. See Kanji & Withers, "Encampment Evictions: Another face of colonial violence of colonial violence in Canada" Al Jazeera (20 July 2021), online: [www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2021/7/20/encampment-evictions-another-face-of-colonial-violence-in-canada] [perma.cc/S3ET-XL45]. Note that we borrow the term "eviction legal system" from Nicole Summers. See Summers, "Civil Probation" 75 Stan L Rev [forthcoming in 2023]. However, it is important to note that there is not one homogenous eviction legal system in Canada. Each province and territory has its own eviction legislation and processes.
11 See e.g. Lisa Monchalin, The Colonial Problem: An Indigenous Perspective on Crime and Injustice in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2016).
12 See Michelle Stewart & Corey La Berge, "Care-to-Prison Pipeline: Indigenous Children in Twenty-First Century Settler Colonial Economies" in Heather Dorries et al, eds, Settler City Limits: Indigenous Resurgence and Colonial Violence in the Urban Prairie West (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2019) 196; Allyson D Stevenson, Intimate Integration: A History of the Sixties Scoop and the Colonization of Indigenous Kinship (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2021). https://doi.org/10.1515/9780887555893-010
13 See Robert Nichols, "The Colonialism of Incarceration" (2014) 17:2 Radical Philosophy Rev 435. Our article's title is inspired by Nichols' article. https://doi.org/10.5840/radphilrev201491622
14 We are paraphrasing Nichols' phrase about alternative normativities and applying the concept to the housing justice system. See Nichols, ibid at 445.
15 See Evelyn Peters & Vince Robillard, "Urban Hidden Homelessness and Reserve Housing" Aboriginal Policy Research Consortium International (2007), online: [ir.lib.uwo.ca/aprci/104] [perma.cc/N7EX-LGDE].
16 Nichols, supra note 13 at 454. https://doi.org/10.2307/2069069
17 Ibid at 451-52.
18 Supra note 12 at 202.
19 "Suspending Damage: A Letter to Communities" (2009) 79:3 Harvard Educational Review 409 at 415. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.79.3.n0016675661t3n15
20 See Thistle, supra note 8 at 7.
21 See Leanne Betasamosake Simpson, As We Have Always Done: Indigenous Freedom through Racial Resistance (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2017) at 196.
22 See e.g. Geoff Dembicki, "Indigenous Housing Solutions, Built on Empowerment" (18 Dec 2020), online: [thetyee.ca/News/2020/12/18/Indigenous-Housing-Solutions-Empowerment] [perma.cc/DG3Z-DPCH].
23 Natalie Clark, "Red Intersectionality and Violence-informed Witnessing Praxis with Indigenous Girls" (2016) 9:2 Girlhood Studies 46 at 54. https://doi.org/10.3167/ghs.2016.090205
24 See e.g. Evelyn Peters & Carol Lafond, "'I Basically Mostly Stick with My Own Kind': First Nations Appropriation of Urban Space in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan" in Evelyn Peters & Chris Anderson, eds, Indigenous in the City: Contemporary Identities and Cultural Innovation (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2013) 88 at 105. https://doi.org/10.59962/9780774824668-006
25 Supra note 21 at 195.
26 Hartman & Robinson, supra note 2 at 466.
27 Sarah Zell & Scott McCullough, "Housing Research Report: Evictions and Eviction Prevention in Canada" (May 2020) at 42 (and throughout), online (pdf): Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation [eppdscrmssa01.blob.core.windows.net/cmhcprodcontainer/sf/project/archive/research_6/evictions-and-eviction-prevention-in-canada.pdf] [perma.cc/KRX2-9T3Q].
28 See discussion in AJ van der Walt, Property in the Margins (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2009) at 56.
29 See Cindy Holmes, Sarah Hunt & Amy Piedalue, "Violence, Colonialism, and Space: Towards a Decolonizing Dialogue" (2014) 14:2 ACME: An International Journal for Critical Geographies 539 at 550. See also Yale D Belanger, Gabrielle Weasel Head & Olu Awosoga, "Assessing Urban Aboriginal Housing and Homelessness in Canada" (30 March 2012), online (pdf): Urban Aboriginal Knowledge Network [uakn.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/2012-UAKN-Research-Paper-Series_Assessing-Urban-Aboriginal-Housing-and-Homelessness-in-Canada_Dr.-Yale-Belanger-1.pdf] [perma.cc/AB2Z-PH74] at 4.
30 Minister of Indigenous Services, "Annual Report to Parliament" (2020), Indigenous Services Canada, online (pdf): [sac-isc.gc.ca/DAM/DAM-ISC-SAC/DAM-TRNSPRCY/STAGING/texte-text/annual-report-parliament-arp-report2020_1648059621383_eng.pdf] at 12.
31 (26 May 2020), online [www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/45-28-0001/2020001/article/00023-eng.htm] [perma.cc/K6UG-4RGE].
32 "'All We Need is Our Land': Exploring Southern Alberta Aboriginal Homelessness" at 25, online (pdf): [ion.uwinnipeg.ca/~epeters/Workshop%20Papers/Belanger.pdf] [perma.cc/VPZ4-3E32].
33 Ibid at 10.
34 "The Complications of Colonialism for Gentrification Theory and Marxist Geography" (2017) 27 J L & Soc Pol'y 43 at 46 [emphasis in original].
35 Supra note 21 at 173.
36 See Weasel Head & Belanger, supra note 32 at 10.
37 Supra note 8 at 26.
38 See Ontario Human Rights Commission, "Housing Discrimination and the Individual" online: [www.ohrc.on.ca/en/right-home-report-consultation-human-rights-and-rental-housing-ontario/housing-discrimination-and-individual] [perma.cc/NYS5-Y5DD]. See also Josh Brandon & Evelyn Peters, "Moving to the City: Housing and Aboriginal Migration to Winnipeg" (November 2014) at 24-25, online (pdf): Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives Manitoba [policyalternatives.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/publications/Manitoba%20Office/2014/12/Aboriginal_Migration.pdf] [perma.cc/4XQ6-F77W].
39 Smith v Mohan (No. 2), 2020 BCHRT 52 [Smith]. https://doi.org/10.1093/itnow/bwaa053
40 Ibid at para 1.
41 Ibid.
42 Saskatchewan Human Rights Commission, Access and Equality for Renters in Receipt of Public Assistance: A Report to Stakeholders (Saskatoon: Saskatchewan Human Rights Commission, 2018) at 22, online (pdf): [https://saskatchewanhumanrights.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/SHRC_RIRPA_web.pdf] [perma.cc/5RQ9-693X].
43 Native Women's Association of Canada, "Background Document on Aboriginal Women and Housing for the Canada-Aboriginal Peoples Roundtable Sectoral Follow-up Session on Housing" (November 2004) at 10, online (pdf): [web.archive.org/web/20150430135940/http://www.nwac.ca/sites/default/files/reports/NWAC_BgPaper_e.pdf]
[perma.cc/5B7M-3JLE] [Native Women's Association of Canada, "Background Document"]. See also Native Women's Association of Canada, "Indigenous Housing: Policy and Engagement: Final Report to Indigenous Services Canada" (31 March 2020) at 79, online (pdf): [www.nwac.ca/assets-knowledge-centre/Indigenous-Housing-Policy-and-Engagement-%E2%80%93-Final-Report-to-Indigenous-Services-Canada.pdf] [perma.cc/8HEP-NLF9] [Native Women's Association of Canada, "Indigenous Housing"].
44 "Housing and Homelessness Policy Recommendations for Indigenous Women Affected by Domestic Violence: A Scoping Review" (30 September 2016), online (pdf): PolicyWise for Children & Families [policywise.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/2016-11NOV-01-Scoping-Review-Indigenous-Women-DV-Homelessness.pdf] [perma.cc/83J7-RQS9] at 30.
45 National Collaborating Centre for Aboriginal Health, "Housing as a Social Determinant of First Nations, Inuit and Metis Health" (2017), online (pdf): [www.ccnsa-nccah.ca/docs/determinants/FS-Housing-SDOH2017-EN.pdf] [perma.cc/WB4H-CPZC] at 1.
46 Supra note 8 at 26.
47 Alan B Anderson, "Socio-demographic Profile of the Aboriginal Population of Saskatoon" in Alan B Anderson, ed, Home in the City: Urban Aboriginal Housing and Living Conditions (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013) 43 at 74. https://doi.org/10.3138/9781442662230
48 Ibid at 255.
49 "Indigenous Housing," supra note 43 at 13.
50 "Background Document," supra note 43 at 10.
51 See Ontario Human Rights Commission, supra note 38.
52 See Allison Groening et al, "Housing Needs of Indigenous Women Leaving Intimate Partner Violence in Northern Communities" (June 2019), online (pdf): Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives Manitoba Office [mra-mb.ca/wp-content/uploads/Housing-Needs-of-Indigenous-Women-Leaving.pdf] [perma.cc/5U93-EWMP] at 11.
53 "Women's Housing Rights: Is Anything Wrong with the International Norm?" in Patricia Kennett & Chan Kam Wah, eds, Women and Housing: An International Analysis (New York: Routledge, 2011) 11 at 17.
54 No Home in a Homeland: Indigenous peoples and Homelessness in the Canadian North (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2017) at 119.
55 Belanger, Weasel Head & Awosoga, supra note 29 at 27.
56 Saskatchewan Human Rights Commission, supra note 42 at 7. See also Anderson, supra note 47 at 104.
57 See Margot Young, "Charter Eviction: Litigating out of House and Home" (2015) 24 J L & Soc Pol'y 46 at 51. Young notes that Canada has proportionately the largest private-sector housing market of any Western nation. https://doi.org/10.60082/0829-3929.1208
58 Some of the limited available research is discussed in this section. See also Xuereb, Craig & Jones, supra note 5 and Zell & McCullough, supra note 2.
59 See e.g. Eviction Lab, online: [evictionlab.org] [perma.cc/BH8Z-7HKV].
60 See Statistics Canada, "Indicators Related to Moving" (Statistics Canada, 2019) online: [www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=4610004401] [perma.cc/WVE6-92GC].
61See supra note 5 for some sources.
62 See Monchalin, supra note 11 at 150; Anderson, supra note 47 at 40.
63 Anderson, supra note 43 at 41. See also Evelyn Peters and Selena Kern, "The Importance of Hidden Homelessness in the Housing Strategies of Urban Indigenous People" in Evelyn Peters and Julia Christensen, eds, Indigenous Homelessness: Perspectives from Canada, Australia, and New Zealand (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2016) 49 at 53.
64 Belanger, Weasel Head & Awosoga, supra note 29 at 6.
65 See Simpson, supra note 21. Simpson writes that Indigenous mobility can be a "response to colonialism as resistance. … Indigenous peoples and our mobility can certainly be an expression of agency and self-determination within even shattered grounded normativity. Given the reality of settler colonialism, many of us continually re-evaluate where we live, whether it is a city or a reserve, in our own territory or not, as a process to figure out how to live with as much dignity as possible … I see this as using our mobility as a flight path out of settler colonialism and into Indigeneity. I see mobility imbued with agency as resurgence (ibid at 196-197)." See also Nicholas Peterson, "Myth of the 'Walkabout': Movement in the Aboriginal Domain" in John Taylor and Martin Bell, eds, Population Mobility and Indigenous Peoples in Australasia and North America (London: Routledge 2004) 223.
66 Peters & Kern, supra note 63 at 57. https://doi.org/10.1101/SQB.1992.057.01.008
67 Yale Belanger, Olu Awosoga & Gabrielle Weasel Head, "Homelessness, Urban Aboriginal People, and the Need for a National Enumeration" (2013) 2:2 Aboriginal Policy Studies 4 at 14. https://doi.org/10.5663/aps.v2i2.19006
68 See Paradis & Heffernan, supra note 3.
69 See e.g. Marleny M Bonnycastle, Maureen Simpkins & Annette Siddle, "The Inclusion of Indigenous Voices in Co-Constructing 'Home': Indigenous Homelessness in a Northern Semi-Urban Community in Manitoba" in Evelyn J Peters & Julia Christensen, eds, Indigenous Homelessness: Perspectives from Canada, Australia, and New Zealand (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2016) 116 at 136.
70 See Thistle, supra note 8 at 15.
71 Ibid at 14.
72 Supra note 54 at 168.
73 Gail MacKay, "The City as Home: the Sense of Belonging among Aboriginal Youth" in Alan B Anderson, ed, Home in the City: Urban Aboriginal Housing and Living Conditions (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013) 173 at 182.
74 Gabriel Weasel Head & Yale D Belanger, supra note 32 at 24. The term "multi-scalar" is borrowed from Christensen, who writes about the complexity and importance of conceptions of home "both at the intimate, proximal scale and at the ontological, or distal, scale," supra note 54 at 35.
75 Christensen, supra note 54 at 171.
76 Supra note 32 at 3. See also Jesse Thistle & Helen Knott, "What does it mean to be Homeless as an Indigenous Person? Discuss," The Globe and Mail (11 October 2019), online: [www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-what-does-it-mean-to-be-homeless-as-an-indigenous-person-discuss/?utm_source=Shared+Article+Sent+to+User&utm_medium=E-mail:+Newsletters+/+E-Blasts+/+etc.&utm_campaign=Shared+Web+Article+Links] [perma.cc/BG3Z-B4GD].
77 Weasel Head & Belanger, supra note 32 at 3.
78 "Introduction: for the Betterment of Our Nations" in Kim Anderson & Bonita Lawrence, eds, Strong Women Stories: Native Vision and Community Survival (Toronto: Sumach Press, 2003) 11 at 12.
79 Supra note 54 at 34.
80 Margaret Kohn, The Death and Life of the Urban Commonwealth (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016) at 84.
81 Naama Blatman-Thomas & Libby Porter, "Placing Property: Theorizing the Urban from Settler Colonial Cities" (2018) 43:1 Int J Urban Regional Research 30 at 32. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2427.12666
82 Lisa Slater, Anxieties of Belonging in Settler Colonialism: Australia, Race and Place (New York: Routledge, 2019) at 43. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429433733
83 Patrick Wolfe, "Settler Colonialism and the Elimination of the Native" (2006) 8:4 J Genocide Research 387 at 388. 84 Blatman-Thomas & Porter, supra note 81 at 31. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623520601056240
85 See discussion in Jackson, supra note 34 at 68.
86 Blatman-Thomas & Porter, supra note 81 at 31.
87 Thistle, supra note 8 at 14.
88 "Indigenous Homelessness: Canadian Context" in Evelyn J Peters & Julia Christensen, eds, Indigenous Homelessness: Perspectives from Canada, Australia, and New Zealand (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2016) 15 at 16.
89 Ibid at 16-17. See also Stevenson, supra note 12.
90 Ibid at 17.
91 See Emerald Bensadoun, "More Indigenous Family Separations Now than During Residential Schools, Advocate Says," Global News (27 June 2021), online: [globalnews.ca/news/7983112/indigenous-family-separations-advocate] [perma.cc/SV6X-GW2W].
92 Nichols, supra note 13 at 452.
93 Ibid at 454.
94 Ibid at 442.
95 See further discussion in Patricia Barkaskas & Sarah Hunt, "Access to Justice for Indigenous Adult Victims of Sexual Assault" (October 2017) at 15, online (pdf): Department of Justice Canada [publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2018/jus/J2-484-2017-eng.pdf] [perma.cc/WH9V-B3KJ].
96 "Introduction" (2014) 29:2 CJLS 141 at 142. https://doi.org/10.23853/bsehm.2017.0326
97 See discussion in Sarah Hunt, "Representing Colonial Violence: Trafficking, Sex Work, and the Violence of Law" (2015-2016) 37:2 Atlantis 25.
98 See e.g. Patricia Monture-Angus, Journeying Forward: Dreaming First Nations' Independence (Halifax: Fernwood, 1999); James (Sa'ke'j) Youngblood Henderson, "The Split Head Resistance: Using Imperial Law to Contradict Colonial Law for Aboriginal Justice" in Elaine Coburn, ed, More Will Sing their Way to Freedom: Indigenous Resistance and Resurgence (Halifax: Fernwood, 2015) 50.
99 Supra note 81 at 35.
100 Ibid.
101 "Predatory Value: Economies of Dispossession and Disturbed Relationalities," (2018) 36:2 Social Text 1 at 3. 102 See Theft is Property!: Dispossession and Critical Theory (Durham: Duke University Press, 2020).
103 Blatman-Thomas & Porter, supra note 81 at 42.
104 Ibid at 32.
105 The idea of laws casting "shadows" will be explained and explored later in the paper.
106 See Government of Saskatchewan, "Rights and Responsibilities of Landlords and Tenants," online: [www.saskatchewan.ca/business/housing-development-construction-and-property-management/landlords-and-rental-properties/landlord-and-tenant-rights-and-responsibilities] [perma.cc/8TQ8-TBCU].
107 Government of Alberta, "RTA Handbook for Landlords and Tenants: Residential Tenancies Act and Regulations" at 24, online (pdf): [open.alberta.ca/dataset/a2767396-099f-43d0-932e-1ec75bf458f3/resource/15cc7bf1-89c6-4baf-9393-ce82d28f3850/download/rta-handbook-bw.pdf] [perma.cc/WX4J-TJML].
108 Residential Tenancies Act, 2006, SO 2006, c 17, s 1.
109 Property in the Margins (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2009) at 55.
110 See e.g. Residential Tenancies Act, supra note 108, ss 58, 174.
111 Supra note 109 at 56. https://doi.org/10.1177/026009430505600209
112 "Exploiting the Poor: Housing, Markets, and Vulnerability," Book Review of Evicted: Poverty and Profit in the American City by Matthew Desmond, (2016-2017) 126 Yale LJ 458 at 467.
113 See Stephanie M Stern, "Reassessing the Citizen Virtues of Homeownership" (2011) 111:4 Colum L Rev 890 at 890.
114 Emma R Power & Charles Gillon, "Performing the 'Good Tenant'" (2020) 37:3 Housing Studies 459 at 459. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673037.2020.1813260
115 Ibid at 460. See also discussion above about discrimination faced by Indigenous tenants seeking rental housing. 116 Joshua Ackers & Eric Seymour, "Instrumental Exploitation: Predatory Property Relations at City's End" (2018) 91 Geoforum 121 at 128.
117 United Nations General Assembly, "Report of the Special Rapporteur on Adequate Housing as a Component of the Right to an Adequate Standard of Living, and on the Right to Non-discrimination in this Context" (March 2017) at 3, online: [undocs.org/A/HRC/34/51] [perma.cc/UVK7-VESZ].
118 See ibid at 5.
119 Interview of Matthew Desmond "How our Housing System Perpetuates Poverty" (22 March 2016) on Spotlight on Poverty & Opportunity, online: [spotlightonpoverty.org/spotlight-exclusives/how-housing-perpetuates-poverty] [perma.cc/RAK8-4G2M].
120 "No Place Like Home: America's Eviction Epidemic," The Guardian (12 Feb 2017), online: [www.theguardian.com/society/2017/feb/12/americas-eviction-epidemic-matthew-desmond-housing-crisis] [perma.cc/Q5XF-L3W9].
121 Ibid.
122 See Rosser, supra note 112 at 472.
123 "Housing Defense as the New Gideon" (2018) 41:1 Harv JL & Gender 55 at 99.
124 Maggie E Reed et al, "There's No Place Like Home: Sexual Harassment of Low Income Women in Housing" (2005) 11 Psychol Pub Pol'y & L 439 at 440. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8971.11.3.439
125 Matthew Desmond, Evicted: Poverty and Profit in the American City (New York: Crown Publishers, 2016) at 129. 126 Supra note 42 at 14.
127 See Matthew Desmond & Carl Gershenson "Who gets Evicted? Assessing Individual, Neighborhood, and Network Factors" (2017) 62 Social Science Research (2017) 362 at 374. See also Alexandra Collins et al, "Surviving the Housing Crisis: Social Violence and the Production of Evictions among Women who use Drugs in Vancouver, Canada" (2018) 51 Health & Place 174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2016.08.017
128 "The Principle of Sharing and the Shadow of Canadian Property Law" in Angela Cameron et al, eds, Creating Indigenous Property: Power, Rights, and Relationships (Toronto: University of Toronto, 2020) 120 at 122. https://doi.org/10.3138/9781487532116-005
129 Ibid.
130 Barbara Bezdek, "Silence in the Court: Participation and Subordination of Poor Tenants' Voices in Legal Process" (1991-1992) 20:3 Hofstra L Rev 533 at 533. https://doi.org/10.1039/cs9912000533
131 Ibid at 540.
132 See e.g. Nicole Summers, "The Limits of Good Law: A Study of Housing Court Outcomes" (2020) 87:1 U Chicago L Rev 145; Michele Cotton, "A Case Study on Access to Justice and How to Improve it" (2014) 16:1 JL in Soc'y 61; Sarah Buhler, "Pandemic Evictions: An Analysis of the 2020 Eviction Decisions of Saskatchewan's Office of Residential Tenancies" (2021) 35 J L & Soc Pol'y 68. https://doi.org/10.60082/0829-3929.1424
133 Supra note 123 at 78-79.
134 Ibid at 79.
135 Cotton, supra note 132 at 87.
136 See Hagar Kotef, The Colonizing Self: Or, Home and Homelessness in Israel/ Palestine (Durham: Duke University Press, 2020).
137 See discussion in Sabbeth, supra note 123 at 79.
138 Hartman & Robinson, supra note 2 at 478. See also Buhler, supra note 132.
139 Paradis, supra note 5 at 82.
140 Ibid.
141 Supra note 95 at 24.
142 Supra note 88 at 39.
143 Ibid.
144 See Stewart & La Berge, supra note 12; Stevenson, supra note 12.
145 See Cindy Blackstock & Nico Trocme "Community-Based Child Welfare for Aboriginal Children: Supporting Resilience through Structural Change" (2005) 24 Soc Policy J New Zealand 12 at 13. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412976312.n7
146 See Groening et al, supra note 52 at 20. See also Lisa Berg & Lars Brännström, "Evicted Children and Subsequent Placement in out-of home care: A Cohort Study" (2018) 13:4 PLoS ONE 1. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0195295
147 See Stephen Gaetz et al, "Report 4: Eviction Prevention for Youth" (Toronto: Canadian Observatory on Homelessness Press, 2018).
148 See Groening et al, supra note 52.
149 See Christensen, No Home in a Homeland, supra note 54 at 201.
150 Nancy Poon, "Housing Situations of Women Prior and Post Incarceration in Canada" (Canadian Association of Elizabeth Fry Societies, 2015) at 8.
151 "The New Housing Segregation: the Jim Crow Effects of Crime-Free Housing Ordinances" (2019) 118:2 Mich L Rev 173 at 231. https://doi.org/10.36644/mlr.118.2.new
152 Leora Smith, "When Police Call Your Landlord," The Atlantic (13 March 2020), online: [www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2020/03/crime-free-housing-lets-police-influence-landlords/605728] [perma.cc/WB5C-NB8U].
153 Ibid.
154 See Monchalin, supra note 11 at 144.
155 For a discussion of other collateral consequences of incarceration, see David S Kirk, "The Collateral Consequences of Incarceration for Housing" in Beth A Huebner & Natasha A Frost, eds, Handbook on the Consequences of Sentencing and Punishment Decisions (New York: Routledge, 2018) 53. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429466380-4
156 Nichols, supra note 13 at 452.
157 See Paradis & Heffernan, supra note 3.
158 Eve Tuck & K Wayne Yang, "Decolonization is Not a Metaphor" (2012) 1:1 Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society 1 at 21.
159 Ibid at 121-122.
160 West Coast LEAF, "Recognizing Multiple Legal Systems: Decolonizing Our Understanding of 'The' Law with Val Napoleon" (17 July 2019), online: [www.westcoastleaf.org/2019/07/17/decolonizing-our-understandings-of-the-law] [perma.cc/PV2R-7GHL]
See also Hadley Friedland, "Reflective Frameworks: Methods for Assessing, Understanding, and Applying Indigenous Laws" (2012) 11:1 Indigenous LJ 1. Friedland notes that Indigenous laws continue to exist in Canada yet are often "invisible or even incomprehensible" to those outside of communities (ibid at 3).
161 Colonial Lives of Property: Law, Land, and Racial Regimes of Ownership (Durham: Duke University Press, 2018) at 193.
162 Ibid at 193-94.
163 Supra note 81 at 43.
164 West Coast LEAF, supra note 151.
165 Ibid.
166 Tuck & Wayne Yang, supra note 158 at 1.
167 Julia Christensen, "'Our Home, Our Way of Life': Spiritual Homelessness and the Sociocultural Dimensions of Indigenous Homelessness in the Northwest Territories (NWT), Canada" (2013) 14:7 Soc & Cultural Geography 804 at 823. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649365.2013.822089
168 "Introduction: The Role of Indigenous Law in the Privatization of Canada" in Angela Cameron et al, eds, Creating Indigenous Property: Power, Rights, and Relationships (Toronto: University of Toronto, 2020) 3 at 7.
169 Indigenous property laws are actively being revitalized, theorized, and practiced. See generally Angela Cameron, et al, eds, Creating Indigenous Property: Power, Rights and Relationships (University of Toronto Press, 2020). Indigenous communities are providing housing in many urban areas across the country. Urban Indigenous self-government is happening right now. See JD Crookshanks, "Urban Housing and Aboriginal Governance" in David Newhouse et al, eds, Well-Being in the Urban Aboriginal Community (Toronto: Thompson Educational, 2012) 55. See also Tim Fontaine, "Idle No More sees tiny house as solution to huge problem" (7 December 2015), online: CBC News [www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/idle-no-more-tiny-house-1.3351893] [perma.cc/L94R-5ZJ3]. Fontaine describes the work of Idle No More, which aims to build housing and resistance to colonial systems.
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