Document Type
Article
English Abstract
Homeless encampments have become increasingly common in US and Canadian cities. Their prevalence raises a fundamental question: are encampments justifiable when individuals lack access to housing? This article argues that encampments are only partially justifiable as a response to homelessness. A complete justification implies that individuals can lawfully establish permanent encampments when they lack access to housing. A partial justification, on the other hand, forbids the establishment of permanent encampments, but permits individuals to establish temporary ones in certain circumstances. Encampments are partially justified for four principal reasons. First, they are a response to public and private law’s failure to alleviate homelessness. Second, encampments informally accommodate people experiencing homelessness within systems of mutual coercion. Third, they informally redistribute the property system’s benefits and burdens. Fourth, encampments bear some hallmarks of justificatory defences in the criminal law. The concluding parts of this article explain the implications of tent encampments’ partial justifiability. First, the concept of partial justification explains why courts have allowed unhoused persons to establish temporary encampments in limited contexts. Partial justifications thus limit State power. Second, the partial justifications for encampments illustrate the importance of housing in ways we may overlook. Furthermore, these partial justifications support a State duty to provide housing or the means to acquire it. By exploring the partial justifications for encampments, this article shows why the right to housing can also be understood as a right to be protected against the legal condition of homelessness.
Citation Information
Skolnik, Terry.
"Homeless Encampments: A Philosophical Justification."
Journal of Law and Social Policy
36.
(2023): 97-118.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.60082/0829-3929.1453
https://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/jlsp/vol36/iss1/6
References
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2 See e.g. Toronto Municipal Code, s. 608-13 & 608-14; City of Ottawa, Parks and Facilities (By-Law No. 2004-276), s. 7(1)(i).
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11 Havi Echenberg & Laura Munn-Rivard, "Defining and Enumerating Homelessness in Canada" (Ottawa: Parliamentary Information and Research Service, 2020) at 1-2.
12 See e.g. Canadian Observatory on Homelessness, "Definition of Homelessness" (Toronto: COH, 2012) at 1; Government of Canada, "Reaching Home: Canada's Homelessness Strategy Directive" (Ottawa: Government of Canada, 2020).
13 Christopher Essert, "Property and Homelessness" (2016) 44 Phil & Pub Aff 266 at 266. See also Terry Skolnik, "Homelessness and Unconstitutional Discrimination" (2019) 15 J L & Equality 69 at 91. https://doi.org/10.1111/papa.12080
14 Morris Cohen, "Property and Sovereignty" (1927) 13:1 Cornell L Rev 8 at 12.
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16 Ibid.
17 Larissa Katz, "Exclusion and Exclusivity in Property Law" (2008) 58:3 UTLJ 275 at 278. https://doi.org/10.1353/tlj.0.0006
18 Laura Underkuffler-Freund, "Property: A Special Right" (1996) 71 Notre Dame L Rev 1033 at 1038.
19 Benjamin Barros, "Property and Freedom" (2009) 4 NYU J L & Lib 36 at 47-57 (discussing how property allocates power).
20 Jane Baron, "Property and No Property" (2006) 42:5 Houston L Rev 1425 at 1426-1427.
21 Sheila Foster, "Collective Action and the Urban Commons" (2011) 87:1 Notre Dame L Rev 57 at 60-61, 66; Victoria (City) v Adams, 2009 BCCA 563 [Adams] at para 4.
22 Marie-Eve Sylvestre & Céline Bellot, "Challenging Discriminatory and Punitive Responses to Homelessness in Canada" in Jackman & Porter, eds, Advancing Social Rights in Canada (Toronto: Irwin Law, 2013) at 168-169.
23 Terry Skolnik, "How and Why Homeless People Are Regulated Differently" (2018) 43:2 Queen's LJ 297 at 298, 306 [Skolnik, "How and Why"].
24 Waldron, "Homelessness and the Issue", supra note 15 at 321.
25 Ibid.
26 Ibid.
27 Skolnik, "How and Why", supra note 23 at 307-8.
28 Ibid at 319-323.
29 Jeremy Waldron, "Community and Property: For Those Who Have Neither" (2009) 10:1 Theor Inq L 161 at 165 [Waldron, "Community and Property"]. https://doi.org/10.2202/1565-3404.1212
30 For an overview, see Eduardo Peñalver & Sonia Katyal, "Property Outlaws" (2007) 155 U Pa L Rev 1095 at 1149-1150.
31 Sarah Hamill, "Caught Between Deference and Indifference: The Right to Housing in Canada" (2018) 7:1 Can J Hum Rts 68 at 90 [Hamill, "Caught Between Deference"]; Michael H Lubetsky, "Adding Epicycles: The Inconsistent Use Test in Adverse Possession Law" (2009) 47:3 Osgoode Hall LJ 497 at 502-503. In Ontario, see Real Property Limitations Act, RSO 1990, c L.15, s. 4, 15. https://doi.org/10.60082/2817-5069.1139
32 Jeremy Waldron, "Why Indigence Is Not a Justification" in William C Heffernan & John Kleinig, eds, From Social Justice to Criminal Justice: Poverty and the Administration of Criminal Law (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000) at 98, 105 [Waldron, "Why Indigence"]; Southwark London Borough Council v Williams [1971] EWHC (Ch) 734. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195129854.003.0005
33 Jane Baron, "Homelessness as a Property Problem" (2004) 36 Urban Lawyer 273 at 287
34 Terry Skolnik, "Freedom and Access to Housing: Three Conceptions" (2018) 35 WYAJ 226 at 227-8 [Skolnik, "Freedom and Access"]. https://doi.org/10.22329/wyaj.v35i0.5690
35 Charles Larmore, "Liberal and Republican Conceptions of Freedom" in Daniel Weinstock & Christian Nadeau, eds, Republicanism: History, Theory, and Practice (London: Frank Cass, 2004) at 83-9.
36 Isaiah Berlin, "Two Concepts of Liberty" in Henry Hardy, ed, Liberty (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003) at https://doi.org/10.1093/019924989X.003.0004
178-81.
37 Ibid.
38 Sandra Fredman, Human Rights Transformed: Positive Rights and Positive Duties (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008) at 10-12. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199272761.001.0001
39 Frank Cross, "The Error of Positive Rights" (2001) 48 UCLA L Rev 857 at 864, 878-93; Helen Hershkoff, "Positive Rights and State Constitutions: The Limits of Federal Rationality Review" (1999) 112:6 Harv L Rev 1131 at 1135-6. 40 Hamill, "Caught Between Deference", supra note 31 at 70 https://doi.org/10.2307/1342383; Terry Skolnik "The Punitive Impact of Physical Distancing Laws on Homeless People" in Colleen M Flood et al, eds, Vulnerable: The Law, Policy and Ethics of COVID-19 (Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 2020) at 289 [Skolnik, "The Punitive Impact"].
41 Tanudjaja v Attorney General (Canada) (Application), 2013 ONSC 5410 at para 81; Clark v. Peterborough Utilities Commission, (1995) 24 OR (3d) 7 (Ont. Ct. Gen. Div.).
42 Tanudjaja v Canada (Attorney General), 2014 ONCA 852 at para 37.
43 Benjamin Barros, "Home as a Legal Concept" (2006) 46 Santa Clara L Rev 255 at 259-70.
44 Jessie Hohmann, The Right to Housing: Law, Concepts, Possibilities (Oxford: Hart, 2013) at 164.
45 Gregory S Alexander & Eduardo M Peñalver, "Properties of Community" (2009) 10 Theoretical Inq L 127 at 135. 46 Margaret Jane Radin, "Property and Personhood" (1982) 34 Stanford L Rev 957 at 991-6.
47 Catharine MacKinnon, "Privacy v. Equality: Beyond Roe v. Wade (1983)" in MacKinnon, Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987) at 96-7.
48 Berlin, supra note 36 at 169-71.
49 Ibid.
50 Cross, supra note 39 at 864.
51 Gosselin v Quebec (Attorney General), 2002 SCC 84 at paras 82-3; Emmett Macfarlane, "Dialogue, Remedies, and Positive Rights: Carter v Canada as a Microcosm for Past and Future Issues Under the Charter of Rights and Freedoms" (2017) 49:1 Ottawa L Rev 107 at 121. Note that the majority of the Court left open the possibility that s. 7 of the Charter imposes certain positive duties on the State.
52 Gerald Kennedy & Lorne Sossin, "Justiciability, Access to Justice and the Development of Constitutional Law in Canada" (2017) 45 Fed L Rev. 707 at 709. https://doi.org/10.22145/flr.45.4.10
53 Ibid; Erwin Chemerinsky, "A Unified Approach to Justiciability" (1990) 22:4 Conn L Rev 677 at 695-8. 54 Waldron, "Homelessness and the Issue", supra note 15 at 304.
55 Ibid at 310-11.
56 Terry Skolnik, "Homelessness and the Impossibility to Obey the Law" (2016) 43 Fordham Urb LJ 741 at 750-76 [Skolnik, "Homelessness and the Impossibility"]
Skolnik, "Criminal Justice Reform: A Transformative Agenda" (2022) 59:3 Alta L Rev 631 at 638. https://doi.org/10.29173/alr2689
57 Ibid at 755; Catherine T Chesnay, Céline Bellot & Marie-Eve Sylvestre, "Taming Disorderly People One Ticket at a Time: The Penalization of Homelessness in Ontario and British Columbia" (2013) 55 Can J Criminol & Crim Just 161 at 167. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjccj.2011-E-46
58 Essert, supra note 13 at 276-278.
59 Philip Pettit, Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government (Oxford: OUP, 1997) at 22-7 [Pettit, Republicanism].
60 Ibid.
61 Philip Pettit, On the People's Terms: A Republican Theory and Model of Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013) at 64 [Pettit, On the People's Terms]. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139017428
62 Ibid.
63 Horacio Spector, "Four Conceptions of Freedom" (2010) 38:6 Political Theory 780 at 797-8. https://doi.org/10.1177/0090591710378589
64 Philip Pettit, "Law and Liberty" in Samantha Besson & José Luis Martí, eds, Legal Republicanism: National and International Perspectives (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009) at 44 [Pettit, "Law and Liberty"]. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199559169.003.0002
65 Pettit, Republicanism, supra note 59 at 48
66 Pettit, On the People's Terms, supra note 61 at 62.
67 Ibid.
68 Eoin Daly, "Freedom as Non-Domination in the Jurisprudence of Constitutional Rights" (2015) 28 Can J L & Juris 289 at 292. https://doi.org/10.1017/cjlj.2015.29
69 Fabian Schuppert, "Non-Domination, Non-Alienation and Social Equality: Towards A Republican Understanding of Equality" (2015) 18:4 Crit Rev Int Soc & Pol Phil 440 at 447. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698230.2015.1033863
70 Philip Pettit, "Discourse Theory and Republican Freedom" in Nadeau and Weinstock eds, Republicanism: History, Theory, Practice (Abingdon: Routledge, 2004) at 79.
71 Pettit, "Law and Liberty", supra note 64 at 48; Larmore, supra note 35 at 96, 98.
72 Cécile Laborde, Critical Republicanism: The Hijab Controversy and Political Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008) at 151 (describing double domination).
73 Ibid.
74 Philip Pettit, Just Freedom: A Moral Compass for a Complex World (New York: Norton, 2014) at 6-7.
75 Essert, supra note 13 at 276-278.
76 Ibid.
77 Ibid.
78 Ibid.
79 Skolnik, "How and Why", supra note 23 at 319-323.
80 Ibid.
81 Ibid.
82 Ibid.
83 Ibid.
84 Waldron, "Homelessness and the Issue", supra note 15 at 296. Waldron's exact quote is: "Everything that is done has to be done somewhere".
85 Skolnik, "How and Why", supra note 23 at 319-323.
86 Terry Skolnik, "Rethinking Homeless People's Punishments" (2019) 22:1 New Crim L Rev 73 at 77-81 [Skolnik, "Rethinking"]. https://doi.org/10.1525/nclr.2019.22.1.73
87 Ibid.
88 Chesnay, Bellot & Sylvestre, supra note 57 at 178.
89 Skolnik, "Rethinking", supra note 86 at 82-3.
90 Waldron, "Homelessness and the Issue", supra note 15 at 296, 302, 315.
91 Skolnik, "Homelessness and Unconstitutional Discrimination", supra note 13 at 76-9, 94; Skolnik, "Freedom and Access", supra note 34 at 241-2.
92 Skolnik, "The Punitive Impact", supra note 40 at 289; Martha Jackman & Bruce Porter, "Rights-Based Strategies to Address Homelessness and Poverty in Canada" in Jackman & Porter, eds, Advancing Social Rights in Canada (Toronto: Irwin Law, 2014) at 101-2.
93 R. v Banks, 2007 ONCA 19 at para 104 (rejecting poverty as an analogous ground of discrimination); Tanudjaja v Attorney General (Canada) (Application), 2013 ONSC 5410 at para 81 (rejecting homelessness as an analogous ground of discrimination).
94 Andy Yu, "Equity and Homelessness" (2020) 33:1 Can J L & Juris 245 at 250-4 (arguing in favour of such an equitable right). https://doi.org/10.1017/cjlj.2019.37
95 Ibid.
96 Stephen Gaetz et al, "The State of Homelessness in Canada, 2016" (Toronto: Canadian Observatory on Homelessness, 2016) at 5. The report estimates that roughly 235,000 individuals experience homelessness per year in Canada, and that 35,000 individuals experience homelessness on a given night.
97 City of Toronto, "Rent-Geared-to-Income Subsidy" (nd), online: [https://www.toronto.ca/community-people/employment-social-support/housing-support/rent-geared-to-income-subsidy/] [perma.cc/D5NR-PKL7].
98 Financial Accountability Office of Ontario, "Housing and Homelessness Programs in Ontario" (Toronto: Government of Ontario, 2021) at 2, online (pdf): [https://www.fao-on.org/en/Blog/Publications/affordable-housing-2021] [perma.cc/J4Z9-DW3J].
99 Noah Zon & Thomas Granofsky, "Resetting Social Assistance Reform" (Toronto: Ontario 360, 2021) at 7 (noting that for a single person, the monthly social assistance amount for the Ontario Works program is $733, and the monthly social assistance amount for the Ontario Disability Support Program is $1,169); City of Toronto, "Monthly Ontario Works Amounts" (August 2021), online: [https://www.toronto.ca/community-people/employment-social-support/employment-support/employment-seekers-in-financial-need/ontario-works-rates/] [perma.cc/34Q5-UYMG]; Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corporation, "Rental Market Report, 2021" (Ottawa: CHMC, 2021) at 95 (noting that the average rental cost of a studio apartment in Toronto is $1,202).
100 Linda Zhang et al, "Concurrent Disorders and Health Care Utilization Among Homeless and Vulnerably Housed Persons in Canada" (2018) 14:1 J Dual Diagnosis 21 at 21-2 https://doi.org/10.1080/15504263.2017.1392055; Vicky Stergiopoulos et al, "Long-Term Effects of Rent Supplements and Mental Health Support Services on Housing and Health Outcomes of Homeless Adults with Mental Illness: Extension Study of the At Home/Chez Soi Randomised Controlled Trial" (2019) 6 Lancet Psych 915 at 916. 101 Skolnik, "Rethinking", supra note 86 at 80-1. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(19)30371-2
102 Ibid at 78.
103 Ibid at 80-1.
104 Ibid at 82-3.
105 See e.g. Abbotsford (City) v Shantz, 2015 BCSC 1909 [Shantz]; Adams, supra note 21.
106 Molly Meinbresse, "Exploring the Experiences of Violence Among Individuals Who Are Homeless Using a Consumer-Led Approach" (2014) 29:1 Victims & Offenders 122 at 126 https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-12-00069; Laura Huey, Invisible Victims: Homelessness and the Growing Security Gap (Toronto: U Toronto Press, 2012) at 30-1. https://doi.org/10.3138/9781442695788
107 Jesse Winter, "It's Safer Out Here" Globe and Mail (14 January 2018), online: [https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/toronto/torontos-homeless-brave-the-cold-rather-than-stay-in-dangerousshelters/article37601534/] [perma.cc/7XD5-BA5H].
108 Michelle Moffa, "A Systematic Scoping Review of Environmental Health Conditions and Hygiene Behaviors in Homeless Shelters" (2019) 222:3 Int J Hygiene & Env Health 335 at 342-3; Skolnik "The Punitive Impact", supra note 40 at 296-7; Julia Rogers et al, "Characteristics of COVID-19 in Homeless Shelters: A Community-Based Surveillance Study" (2021) 174:1 Ann Intern Med 42 at 42.
109 Zoe Loftus-Farren, "Tent Cities: An Interim Solution to Homelessness and Affordable Housing Shortages in the United States" (2011) 99:4 Cal L Rev 1037 at 1051.
110 Bruce Wallace et al, "Sheltering Risks: Implementation of Harm Reduction in Homeless Shelters during an Overdose Emergency" (2018) 53 Int J Drug Pol'y 83 at 85-6, 88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2017.12.011
111 Mariyah Salhiya, "The Reality for Toronto's Homeless is that Shelters Don't Feel Safe. What I, A Suburbanite, Learned from an Encampment Resident", Toronto Star (22 June 2021), online: [https://www.thestar.com/opinion/contributors/2021/06/22/the-reality-for-torontos-homeless-is-that-shelters-dont-feel-safe-what-i-learned-from-an-encampment-resident.html] [perma.cc/Q7FA-8D72]; Rebecca Cohen, Will Yetvin & Jill Khadduri, "Understanding Encampments of People Experiencing Homelessness and Community Responses: Emerging Evidence as of Late 2018" (Washington: US Department of Housing and Urban Development, 2019) at 1, 4-5; Liam Casey, "'I Don't Feel Safe': Toronto Shelters Are Seeing A Rise in Violence during the Pandemic", National Post (6 June 2021), online: [https://nationalpost.com/news/explosion-of-fury-and-violence-and-blood-torontos-shelters-see-rise-in-violence] [perma.cc/K3PZ-FNGY].
112 Dunton et al, supra note 1 at 5-6.
113 Samir Junejo, Suzanne Skinner & Sara Rankin, "No Rest for the Weary: Why Cities Should Embrace Homeless Encampments" (Seattle: Seattle University School of Law Homeless Rights Advocacy Project, 2016) at 11-12. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2776425
114 Ibid.
115 Ibid.
116 Liam Casey, "Clearing of Homeless Encampment in Toronto Halted after Standoff with Community", Global News (19 May 2021), online: [https://globalnews.ca/news/7876565/tensions-flare-toronto-homeless-encampment-cleared/] [perma.cc/DV4K-ES9W].
117 Sarah Morin, "Surveillance, New Rules Coming to Moncton's Tent City", CBC News (20 June 2019), online: [perma.cc/GT75-V3UX]; Tony Sparks, "Citizens Without Property: Informality and Political Agency in a Seattle, Washington Homeless Encampment" (2017) 49:1 Environment & Planning A 86 at 94-5; Loftus-Farren, supra note 109 at 1055-7.
118 Loftus-Farren, ibid at 1055-1057.
119 Ibid at 1053.
120 Dunton et al, supra note 1 at 5-6.
121 Chantelle Lee, "Homeless Encampment Residents, Advocates Protest Park Clearings at Toronto Rally", Globe and Mail (26 July 2021), online: [https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-homeless-encampment-residents-advocates-protest-park-clearings-at/] [perma.cc/XQN6-DFYS].
122 CBC News, "26 Arrested", supra note 3.
123 Dunton et al, supra note 1 at 18.
124 Katherine DeClerq, "Crews Knock Down Fire at Toronto Homeless Encampment", CTV News (23 May 2021), online: [https://toronto.ctvnews.ca/crews-knock-down-fire-at-toronto-homeless-encampment-1.5440253] [perma.cc/V328-ECDL]; Ryan Rocca, "Investigation underway after encampment fire in Toronto", Global News (19 May 2021), online: [https://globalnews.ca/news/7887851/lamport-stadium-homeless-encampment-fire/] [perma.cc/FE6E-5CCQ].
125 Paighten Harkins, "45-Year-Old Woman Dies at Salt Lake City Homeless Encampment", Salt Lake Tribune (7 February 2021), online: [https://www.sltrib.com/news/2021/02/07/year-old-woman-dies-salt/] [perma.cc/TGK4-Q6A6].
126 Dunton et al, supra note 1 at 18.
127 Shantz, supra note 105 at para 274; Heidi Petracek & Ryan van Horne, "Discovery of Homeless Encampment in Halifax Park Highlights Need for Affordable Housing, Supports", CTV News (27 October 2020), online: [https://atlantic.ctvnews.ca/discovery-of-homeless-encampment-in-halifax-park-highlights-need-for-affordable-housing-supports-1.5163833] [perma.cc/F9BS-5UVL]; City of Toronto, News Release, "At Least 14 People from Trinity Bellwoods Park Accept Safe, Inside Space" (23 June 2021), online: [https://www.toronto.ca/news/at-least-14-people-from-trinity-bellwoods-park-accept-safe-inside-space/] [perma.cc/QB4L-RRXM].
128 Shantz, ibid at paras 197-199.
129 Carol Rose, "The Comedy of the Commons: Custom, Commerce, and Inherently Public Property" (1986) 53:3 U Chicago L Rev 711 at 779. https://doi.org/10.2307/1599583
130 Elinor Ostrom, Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015) at 5. Ostrom's full quote is: "The paradox that individually rational actions lead to collectively irrational outcomes […]".
131 Garrett Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons" (1968) 162:3859 Science 1243 at 1244 https://doi.org/10.1126/science.162.3859.1243; Nicole Stelle-Garnett, "Managing the Urban Commons" (2012) 160 U Pa L Rev 1995 at 2007.
132 Hardin, ibid at 1244.
133 Ibid at 1247; Foster, supra note 21 at 61.
134 Hardin, ibid at 1247.
135 Committee for the Commonwealth of Canada v Canada, [1991] 1 S.C.R. 139 at 154-155 citing Hague v Committee for Industrial Organization, 307 US 496 (1939) at 515-516. Both decisions cited in Shantz, supra note 105 at paras 196-7; Sarah Hamill, "Private Rights to Public Property: The Evolution of Common Property in Canada" (2012) 58:2 McGill LJ 365 at 391. https://doi.org/10.7202/1017518ar
136 Max Schanzenbach & Nadav Shoked, "Reclaiming Fiduciary Law for the City" (2018) 70 Stan L Rev 565 at 585-6; Shantz, ibid at paras 196-197.
137 Robert C Ellickson, "Controlling Chronic Misconduct in City Spaces: Of Panhandlers, Skid Rows, and Public-Space Zoning" (1996) 105 Yale LJ 1165 at 1174-1175. https://doi.org/10.2307/797175
138 Waldron, "Why Indigence", supra note 32 at 105.
139 Ibid.
140 Ibid at 108-109; Southwark London Borough Council v Williams [1971] EWHC (Ch) 734.
141 Southwark, ibid.
142 Peñalver & Katyal, supra note 30 at 1155-8 (discussing self-help and justifications in the context of private property rather than public property).
143 Essert, supra note 13 at 276-281. See also Jedediah Purdy, "A Freedom-Promoting Approach to Property: A Renewed Tradition for New Debates" (2005) 72:4 U Chi L Rev 1237 at 1297.
144 Essert, supra note 13 at 276-278.
145 Arthur Ripstein, Force and Freedom: Kant's Legal and Political Philosophy (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2009) at 90-96. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674054516
146 Itai Sened, The Political Institution of Private Property (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997) at 36, 38, 89.
147 Essert, supra note 13 at 276-278.
148 Ibid; Jeremy Waldron, "What is Private Property?" (1985) 5:3 Oxford J Leg Stud 313 at 318, 345. https://doi.org/10.1093/ojls/5.3.313
149 Essert, supra note 13 at 276-278.
150 Waldron, "Community and Property", supra note 29 at 165.
151 Ibid at 165-166.
152 Ibid.
153 Ibid.
154 Ibid.
155 Ibid; Jane Baron, "Rescuing the Bundle-of-Rights Metaphor in Property Law" (2013) 82 U Cin L Rev 57 at 87 [Baron, "Rescuing the Bundle-of-Rights"]. Baron's exact quote is "The homeless, to take a vivid example, experience only duties, no-rights, liabilities, and disabilities".
156 Yu, supra note 94 at 250.
157 Ibid.
158 Ibid at 250-251.
159 Skolnik, "How and Why", supra note 23 at 320.
160 Ibid at 305-306.
161 See e.g. Thomas Merill, "Property and the Right to Exclude" (1998) 77 Nebraska L Rev 730 at 749-50.
162 Michael Robertson, "Common Property Redux" (2016) 49 UBC L Rev 563 at 595-6.
163 Waldron, "Why Indigence", supra note 32 at 105.
164 Wesley Hohfeld, "Fundamental Legal Conceptions as Applied in Judicial Reasoning" (1917) 26 Yale LJ 710 at 710. https://doi.org/10.2307/786270
165 Ernest Weinrib, "Poverty and Property in Kant's System of Rights" (2003) 78 Notre Dame L Rev 795 at 809.
166 Jedediah Purdy, "People as Resources: Recruitment and Reciprocity in the Freedom-Promoting Approach to Property" (2007) 56:4 Duke LJ 1047 at 1107, 1113-4; Jeremy Waldron, "Property, Justification and Need" (1993) 6:2 Can J L & Juris 185 at 203-204. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0841820900001909
167 Baron, "Rescuing the Bundle-of-Rights", supra note 155 at 187.
168 See section IV, above.
169 Ripstein, supra note 145 at 146-147, 152-157.
170 Ernest Weinrib, "Poverty and Property in Kant's System of Rights" (2003) 78:3 Notre Dame L Rev 795 at 807. 171 Jacob Weinrib, Dimensions of Dignity: The Theory and Practice of Modern Constitutional Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016) at 48, 86-87.
172 Ibid at 87.
173 Ibid at 15.
174 Ripstein, supra note 145 at 151-159.
175 Ibid at 25, 145-147.
176 Ibid at 192-193.
177 Ibid.
178 Ibid at 192-197.
179 Ibid at 145-147.
180 Ibid at 192-197.
181 B Sharon Byrd, "Wrongdoing and Attribution: Implications beyond the Justification-Excuse Distinction" (1987) 33:4 Wayne L Rev 1289 at 1290.
182 George Fletcher, Rethinking Criminal Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) at 759; Perka v The Queen, [1984] 2 S.C.R. 232 at 246 [Perka].
183 Perka, ibid at 246; R. v Nasogaluak, 2010 SCC 6 at paras 33-4; Terry Skolnik, "Use of Force and Criminalization" Albany L Rev [forthcoming in 2023].
184 Ibid.
185 Ibid; R. v Ruzic, [2001] 1 S.C.R. 687, 2001 SCC 24 at para 30 [Ruzic]; Martha Shaffer, "Duress: The Constitutional Validity of Section 17 of the Criminal Code" (1998) 40 Crim LQ 444 at 445.
186 Ruzic, ibid at para 29; Terry Skolnik, "Three Problems with Duress and Moral Involuntariness" (2016) 63 Crim LQ 124 at 128.
187 Perka, supra note 182 at 250.
188 Ibid at 248; Skolnik, "Homelessness and the Impossibility", supra note 56 at 778-9.
189 Alon Harel, Why Law Matters (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014) at 117-8. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199643271.001.0001
190 Ibid (discussing the legal incorporation of exceptions into rules). The same concerns apply for repeatedly accepting justifications and excuses that create similar exceptions; Perka, supra note 182 at 248.
191 Harel, ibid; Morgentaler v The Queen, [1976] 1 S.C.R. 616 at 678. In Morgentaler, Justice Dickson notes: "[n]o system of positive law can recognize any principle which would entitle a person to violate the law because in his view the law conflicted with some higher social value".
192 Perka, supra note 182 at 248.
193 Salhiya, supra note 111; Cohen, Yetvin & Khadduri, supra note 111.
194 Adams, supra note 21.
195 Ibid at paras 21-24.
196 Ibid at para 28.
197 Ibid at paras 28, 72, 75,
198 Ibid at paras 102-10; Sarah Hamill, "Private Property Rights and Public Responsibility: Leaving Room for the Homeless" (2011) 30 Windsor Rev Legal & Soc Issues 91 at 92.
199 Adams, supra note 21 at paras 112-6; at 106; Alan Young, "Deprivations of Liberty: The Impact of the Charter on Substantive Criminal Law" (2012) 57 SCLR (2d) 73 at 106.
200 Young, ibid at 106.
201 Adams, supra note 21 at paras 156, 160, 166. https://doi.org/10.1080/14672715.1989.10404463
202 William E Lee, "Lonely Pamphleteers, Little People, and the Supreme Court: The Doctrine of Time, Place, and Manner Regulations of Expression" (1985) 54:5 Geo Wash L Rev 757 at 757-60 (describing time, place, and manner restrictions that govern the regulation of speech).
203 British Columbia v. Adamson, 2016 BCSC 584 [Adamson] at para 1.
204 Ibid at paras 60-179.
205 Ibid at paras 129-179.
206 Ibid at paras 74-124.
207 Ibid at paras 183, 188.
208 Ibid at para 183.
209 Ibid at para 185.
210 Ibid at paras 183-84.
211 Tim Iglesias, "Our Pluralist Housing Ethics and the Struggle for Affordability" (2007) 42:2 Wake Forest L Rev 511 at 515.
212 Ripstein, supra note 145 at 145-59.
213 Yu, supra note 94 at 250.
214 Ibid.
215 Jeremy Waldron, "Homelessness and Community" (2000) 50 UTLJ 371 at 374, 394. 216 Essert, supra note 13 at 266. https://doi.org/10.2307/825960
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