Getting it Wrong: Applying Public Security Limitation to the East African Community's Right of Establishment in Kenya

Authors

Priscah Wamucii Nyotah, University of Nairobi School of LawFollow
Francis D.P. Situma, University of Nairobi School of LawFollow
Edwin Abuya, University of Nairobi School of LawFollow

Document Type

Article

English Abstract

The Right of Establishment (ROE) is one of the rights and freedoms provided for under the East African Community’s Common Market Protocol. Under this right, citizens of East African Community Partner States, namely, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, South Sudan, and the Democratic Republic of Congo are entitled to move to any other Partner State and pursue economic activities, as self-employed persons. Their spouses and children are also entitled to this right or to be employed. They are also entitled to join the security schemes of the host PS. However, the right is not absolute. A PS can limit the enjoyment of the right on the ground of public security. The “how” of applying the limitation was left to the Partner States to deal with under their national laws. This article analyses how Kenya handles this limitation regarding East African Community citizens, who are ROE holders. It examines the scope of the limitation focusing on its theoretical underpinning, and its scope under the Common Market Protocol. It then identifies and explains areas where Kenya is getting it ‘wrong’. The article contends that Kenya has not balanced the interests of ROE holders and its national interests. It suggests steps towards getting it right during the application of the limitation.

Citation Information

Nyotah, Priscah Wamucii; Situma, Francis D.P.; and Abuya, Edwin. "Getting it Wrong: Applying Public Security Limitation to the East African Community's Right of Establishment in Kenya." The Transnational Human Rights Review 9. (2022) : 31-68.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.60082/2563-4631.1100
https://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/thr/vol9/iss1/2

References

1 These are views of a Burundian national who is doing business in Kenya, interviewed on 23 August,2022. Burundi is a Partner State in the EAC. The views depict the bigger picture in the management of public security limitations in the context of EAC integration.

2 See art 76 of the Treaty for the Establishment of East African Community (7 July 2000);

2 155 UNTS 255 (EAC Treaty).

3 See art 13 of the Protocol on the Establishment of East African Community Common Market, (1 July 2010), Kenya Treaties Online.

4 Ibid. 5 EAC Treaty, supra note 2, art 104(1) (providing that The Partner States agree to adopt measures to achieve the free movement of persons, labour and services and to ensure the enjoyment of the right of establishment and residence of their citizens within the Community).

6 CMP, supra note 3, Article 4(2).

7 See, for instance, art 39(3) of the Constitution of Kenya, art 29(2) of Constitution of Uganda, art 27 of the South Sudan Constitution, and art 26 of the Constitution of Rwanda. See also, s 22(1) of the Kenya Citizenship and Immigration (Act No. 12 of 2011), s 4 of Law N°57/2018 of 13/08/2018 on Immigration and Emigration in Rwanda, s 28 of The Immigration Act, Chapter 54 Laws of Tanzania, and s 53 of The Uganda Citizenship and Immigration Act, Chapter 66 Laws of Uganda.

8 MHS & another v MGA & 2 others; Italian Embassy (Interested Party) [2020] eKLR, paragraph 58. See also, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights; UNTS, vol. 999, p. 171, art 13.

9 EAC Treaty, supra note 2, para 1.

10 CMP, supra note 3, para 1.

11 See R.B. Jain, "Sampling Method in Legal Research" (1982) 24 Journal of the Indian Law Institute 678-691 for a deeper analysis of this.

12 See Anne Galletta, Mastering the Semi-Structured Interview and Beyond: From Research Design to Analysis and Publication Vol. 18 (New York University Press, London, 2013) for a detailed analysis of this.

13 For a detailed review of thematic analysis, see Virginia Braun and Victoria Clarke, "Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology" (2006) 3:2 Qual. Res. Psychol 77. See also, Oscar Labra et al, "Thematic Analysis in Social Work: A Case Study" in Bala Niku ed, Global Social Work: Cutting Edge Issues and Critical Reflections (Intech Open, London, 2020) 183-198.

14 CMP, supra note 3, art 13(3) (a).

15 Carmine Gorga, 'Toward the Definition of Economic Rights' (1999) 2 Journal of Markets and Morality 88-101.

16 Ibid 89.

17 See general discussions on how foreigners are viewed with regard to national security in Whitaker BE, "Refugees, Foreign Nationals, and Wageni: Comparing African Responses to Somali Migration" (2020) 63 African Studies Review 18 https://doi.org/10.1017/asr.2019.52 ; Loren Landau, "Immigration and the State of Exception: Security and Sovereignty in East and Southern Africa" (2006) 34:2 Millennium 325-348 https://doi.org/10.1177/03058298060340021201.

18 Otilla Anna Maunganidze & Julian Formica, "Freedom of movement in Southern Africa: A SADC (pipe) Dream?" (2018) 17 ISS South African Report 1 at 17.

19 Gordon Brown, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the 21st Century: A Living Document in a Changing World (Open Book Publishers, Cambridge United Kingdom, 2016) 64. https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0091

20 Ibid art 13(4).

21 Ibid read with art 10(5).

22 CMP, supra note 3, art 29.

23 J Crush, B Dodson, V Williams and D Tevera, "Harnessing Migration for Inclusive Growth and Development in Southern Africa: Special Report" (2017) Southern African Migration Programme. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvh8r3q1

24 Mauganidze and Formica, supra note 18, 3; see also, Fiona B. Adamson,'Crossing Borders: International Migration and National Security' (2006) 31:1 International Security 165-199. https://doi.org/10.1162/isec.2006.31.1.165

25 CMP, art 13(1)

26 CMP, art 13(2).

27 CMP, art 13(5).

28 East African Community Common Market (Right of Establishment) Regulations (Annex III); Kenya Treaties Online, online: http://treaties.mfa.go.ke/treaties (accessed 12 May,2022), reg 10.

29 Interview with an official at Kenya's Department of Regional Integration (22 August,2022).

30 East African Community Protocol on the Establishment of Customs Union; Kenya Treaties Online, online: http://treaties.mfa.go.ke/treaties (accessed 2 September,2022), art 22.

31 CMP, supra note 3, art 13(8).

32 Ibid art 1.

33 Tomasz Milej, "Legal Framework for Free Movement of People Within Africa - A View from the East African Community (EAC)" (2019) 79 ZaöRV 935 at 936.

34 Executive Office of the President, Annual Report to Parliament on the State of National Security (March 2020) 17.

35 Ibid.

36 Ibid.

37 John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Revised edition) (Cambridge MA, Harvard University Press, 1999) 212. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674042582

38 J. L. Goldsmith & E. A. Posner, The Limits of International Law (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005) 105. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195168396.001.0001

39 Rawls, supra note 29, 213.

40 I. M. Rautenbach, "The Limitation of Rights in Terms of Provisions of the Bill of Rights Other Than the General Limitation Clause: A Few Examples" (2001) SALJ 617 at 618.

41Ibid 622.

42 CMP, supra note 3, art 54 (2).

43 Ibid.

44 CAB/LEG/67/3; rev. 5, 21 I.L.M. 58 (1982); art 7(1). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020782900054905

45 ICCPR, supra note 8, art 2(3).

46 Randu Nzai Ruwa & 2 others v Internal Security Minister & another (2016) eKLR, para 39. See also, Republic v. Minister of State for Immigration of Persons exparte C. O. (2013) eKLR para 33.

47 Goldsmith & Posner, supra note 38, 105.

48 C. Banard, The Substantive Law of the EU: The Four Freedoms, 4th ed (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013) 496. https://doi.org/10.1093/he/9780199670765.003.0565

49 T A M Cooney, Restrictions on Freedom of Movement, (1966) 10:2 Irish Jurist 314 at 315.

50 Kennedy Gastorn, "Freedom of Establishment and the Freedom to Provide Services in the EAC" in Emmanuel Ugirashebuja, John Eudes Ruhangisa, Tom Ottervanger and Armin Cuyvers (eds), East African Community Law: Institutional, Substantive and Comparative EU Aspects (Brill Nijhof, Leiden, 2016) 365 at 370.

51 Joseph Carens, "Aliens and Citizens: The Case for Open Borders", (1987) 49:2 The Review of Politics 251 at 254. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0034670500033817

52 Ibid 260.

53 R. Pound, Contemporary Juristic Theory, (Littleton: F.B Rotham, 1981) 75.

54 E. Durojaye, "Between a Rock and a Hard Place: (Un)balancing the Public Health Interventions and Human Rights Protection in the COVID 19 era in South Africa" (2022) 26:2 The International Journal of Human Rights 332 at 342. https://doi.org/10.1080/13642987.2021.1926238

55 D.P Saredau & P.C Obutte, "Inclusivity and trans-border security under ECOWAS free movement and transhumance protocols" (2019) 1:3 International Review of Law and Jurisprudence 99.

56 P Niels P, "Proportionality and the Incommensurability Challenge in the Jurisprudence of the South African Constitutional Court" (2014) 30:3 SAJHR 405 at 428; https://doi.org/10.1080/19962126.2014.11865116

57 S Woolman, "Out of Order? Out of Balance? The Limitation Clause of the Final Constitution" (1997) 13 SAJHR 102 at 114. https://doi.org/10.1080/02587203.1997.11834939

58 Niels, supra note 56, 407.

59 Ibid. See also, Woolman, supra note 57, 111.

60 Evidence Act, Chapter 80 Laws of Kenya, s 107.

61 E O Abuya, "Promoting transparency: Courts and the operationalization of the Right to Access Information in Kenya" (2017) 46:2 Common Law World Review 112 at 125. https://doi.org/10.1177/1473779517694534

62 Constitution of Kenya, art 24(3).

63 Ibid art 35(1).

64 G Gehan, "Justifying Limitations on the Freedom of Expression," (2021) 22 Human Rights Law Review 91 at 94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12142-020-00608-8

65 EACJ Reference No. 5 of 2011.

66 Ibid para 15.

67 Ibid.

68 Ibid para 9.

69 Mohochi, supra note 65, para 115.

70 Ibid.

71 A Hamadou, "Free Movement of Persons in West Africa Under the Strain of COVID-19" (2020) 114 AJIL Unbound 337. https://doi.org/10.1017/aju.2020.66

72 A Alabi, "ECOWAS Protocol Implementation on Free Movement of Persons and Trade between Nigeria and Benin Republic: An Overview" (2020) 9:2 JMSS 947 at 963.

73 B Ladau et al, "Free and Safe Movement in East Africa: Report on Promoting the Safe and Unencumbered Movement of People across East Africa's International Borders" (2018) Open Society Foundations 14.

74 Hamadou, supra note 63, 338.

75 CMP, supra note 3, art 13(8).

76 P Lenaghan & V Amadi, "Advancing Regional Integration through the Free Movement of Persons in the Southern African Development Community (SADC)" (2020) 10 Speculum Juris 52 at 64.

77 C Nshimbi, I Moyo, & Gumbo T, "Between Neoliberal Orthodoxy and Securitisation: Prospects and Challenges for a Borderless Southern African Community" in Magidimisha et al (eds) Crisis, Identity and Migration in Post-Colonial Southern Africa (London: Springer, 2017) 167 at 176. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-59235-0_10

78 CMP, supra note 3, art 1.

79 B Garner, Black's Law Dictionary, 11th ed (St Paul, MA: West Publishing Company, 2019) sub verbo "threat" at 1783.

80 Constitution of Kenya, art 24(2) (c).

81 Black's Law Dictionary, supra note 71, sub verbo "limitation" at 1114.

82 Ibid sub verbo "restriction" at 1572.

83 [2017] eKLR, 8.

84 CMP, supra note 2, art 13(9).

85 Interview with a Senior Legal Officer at EAC Secretariat (22 March, 2022).

86 Mohochi, supra note 57, para 114.

87 Ibid.

88 Constitution, art 2(6).

89 Ibid art 19(3)(b).

90 See, Kenya Human Rights Commission v Communications Authority of Kenya & 4 others [2018] eKLR, para 67.

91 Restatement (Third) of Foreign Relations Law of the United States (American Law Institute Publishers, St Pauls, MN, 1987) para 711.

92 EACJ Reference No. 7 of 2017.

93 Ibid para 7.

94 Ibid para 7.

95 Ibid para 45.

96 Ibid para 41.

97 See this theme on East Africa Community official website, online: https://www.eac.int/ (accessed on 25 September, 2022).

98 21st Ordinary Summit of Heads of State of the East African Community Joint Communiqué (27 February,2021), para 4, online: https://www.eac.int/communique/1942-communiqu%C3%A9-of-the-21st-ordinary-summit-of-the-east-africancommunity-heads-of-state (accessed on 20 August, 2022).

99 Act No. 12 of 2011. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-6128(11)70291-9

100 Ibid Preamble.

101 Kenya National Commission on Human Rights, A Survey Report on Status of Migrants in Places of Detention in Kenya (October 2020).

102 Ibid 6.

103 International Organization of Migration, Migration in Kenya Profile: A Country Profile, (2018) xvii.

104 See for example, KNCHR, supra note 101.

105 United Nations doc. E/CN.4/1987/17, 122.

106 Interview with an immigration official (20 August, 2022).

107 Act No. 11A of 2011.

108 Ibid s 128(3).

109 Act No. 25 of 2012.

110 Act No. 28 of 2012.

111 See KDF Act, s 49(5). See also, NIS Act, s 37(4).

112 NIS Act, s 37(2).

113 KDF Act, s 49(2)(a).

114 See, EAC Treaty, supra note 2, art 6(d). See also, Annex III, supra note 28, reg 2.

115 Interviewed on 20 August 2022.

116 [2014] eKLR.

117 Ibid para 36.

118 Ibid para 9.

119 Ibid para 41.

120 [2008] eKLR.

121 Ibid 1.

122 Ibid 2.

123 Ibid 3.

124 Constitution, art 24(1).

125 Ibid art 238(2)(b).

126 Ibid.

127 O E Ristea, "Free movement of EU Citizens: Limitations on grounds of Public Policy, Public Security and Public Health" (2011) 1:1 Chall Knowl Soc 724-736.

128 Ibid 727.

129 EAC Treaty, supra note 2, arts 6(d), 7(2) and 8 (1) (c).

130 Annex III, supra note 28, reg 2.

131 Reference No. 2 of 2017.

132 Ibid para 60.

133 [2015] eKLR.

134 Ibid para 210.

135 [2015] eKLR.

136 Ibid 9.

137 Ibid.

138 Nadeem, supra note 135, 10.

139 Ibid 11.

140 Bashir Mohammed Jama Abdi vs The minister of Immigration and Registration of Persons and 2 Others [2014] eKLR.

141 [2013] eKLR, para 22.

142 Ibid.

143 Marjoleine Zieck, "Refugees and the Right to Freedom of Movement: From Flight to Return," (2018) 39 Mich. J. Int. Law 19 at 21.

144 See for instance, Peter Solomon Gichira vs Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission & Another (2017) eKLR.

145 Constitution, Article 24(2).

146 Ibid.

147 See Article 24(2)(a) of the Constitution.

148 Abuya, supra note 61, 113.

149 CORD, supra note 133.

150 Ibid para 63.

151 CORD, supra note 133, para 230.

152 CORD, supra note 133, para 257.

153 CORD, supra note 133, para 254.

154 Act No. 31 of 2016. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781474213004.0007

155 Ibid s 6.

156 Ibid.

157 Ibid.

158 Ibid.

159 See, for instance, KNCHR report, supra note 101; see also, O Onyango, "Kenya Entangled in Proscribed Crimes of Terrorism and Violations of Human Rights Law," (2015) 3:1 Sociology and Anthropology 1 at 3; https://doi.org/10.13189/sa.2015.030101

160 Gehan, supra note 64, 94.

161 Carens, supra note 51, 262.

162 E Abuya & J Githinji, "Access to University Education by Learners with Physical Disabilities: Combating the Barriers" (2021) 27 BHRLR 1 at 50.

163 See, Jacqueline Okuta & another v Attorney General & 2 others [2017] eKLR 10; See also, Kenya Human Rights Commission v Communications Authority of Kenya & 4 others [2018] eKLR para 52; G Huscroft, et al (eds), Proportionality and the Rule of Law: Rights, Justification, Reasoning (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014); and R vs Oakes [1986] 1 SCR 10, para 69 for a detailed analysis.

164 Ladau et al, supra note 73, 20.

165 A O Maunganidze, "Freedom of Movement: Unlocking Africa's Development Potential" (Policy Brief 111, December 2017).

166 F Viljoen, International Human Rights Law in Africa, 2nd edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012) 349. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199645589.003.0008

167 Constitution, Article 24(1).

168 See for example, NW Orago, "Limitation of Socio-Economic Rights in the 2010 Kenyan Constitution: A Proposal for the Adoption of a Proportionality Approach in the Judicial Adjudication of Socio-Economic Rights Disputes" (2013) 16:5 PER/PELJ 170 https://doi.org/10.4314/pelj.v16i5.4 ; C Emeka, "Right to Freedom of Movement in Nigeria," (2020) 1 Auxano LJ 80 ; M van Staden "Constitutional rights and their limitations: A critical appraisal of the COVID-19 lockdown in South Africa" (2020) 20 AHRLJ 484. https://doi.org/10.17159/1996-2096/2020/v20n2a6

169 Wilson Olal, supra note 83, 8.

170 Nadeem, supra note 135, 10.

171 Interview held on 12 August, 2022.

172 ECLI:EU:C: 2018:296.

173 Ibid para 18.

174 Ibid para 17.

175 Ibid para 19.

176 Ibid para 21.

177 Ibid para 51.

178 Mohochi, supra note 57, para 90.

179 Ex parte C.O, supra note 141, para 23.

180 Ibid.

181 Ibid.

182 Ibid.

183 [2021] eKLR.

184 Ibid 1.

185 Ibid 2.

186 Ibid 3.

187 Ibid.

188 Interview held on 14 August, 2022.

189 KCIA, section 33(1).

190 CORD, supra note 125.

191 Ibid para 211.

192 Ibid. See also, I M Rautenbach, "Proportionality and the Limitation Clauses of the South African Bill of Rights"(2014) 17:6 PER/PELJ 2229 at 2247. https://doi.org/10.4314/pelj.v17i6.01

193 Daniel Moeckli, "Immigration Law Enforcement after 9/11 and Human Rights" in Alice Edwards and Carla Ferstman eds, Human Security and Non-Citizens: Law, Policy, and International Affairs (Cambridge University Press, New Work, 2010) 459 at 490. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511808371.014

194 Interview held on 23 August, 2022.

195 Mohochi case, supra note 57, para 100.

196 Mulki, supra note 183, p 2.

197 Randu, supra note 46.

198 Ibid para 9. 199 Act No. 6 of 2010.

200 Randu, supra note 46, para 75.

201 Ibid.

202 Ibid para 76.

203 Ibid para 77.

204 KNCHR report, supra note 77, 26.

205 Ibid.

206 Ibid.

207 Interview held on 18 August 2022.

208 Interview held on 13 August, 2022.

209 A Ellermann, "The Limits of Unilateral Migration Control: Deportation and Inter-State Cooperation" (2008) 43:2 Government and Opposition 168 at 169. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.2007.00248.x

210 EAC Treaty, art 124.

211 K&HF case, supra note 172, para 52.

212 Ibid.

213 Constitution, art 47(1). See also, Fair Administrative Action (Act No. 4 of 2015), s 4(1).

214 Ibid.

215 Ibid.

216 Abuya, supra note 53, 128.

217 Interview held on 13 August, 2022.

218 Kenya Citizenship & Immigration Regulations (2012) reg 37.

219 KCIA, s 43.

220 Ibid.

221 Penal Code, Chapter 63 Laws of Kenya, s 29.

222 Ibid.

223 KCIA, s 43.

224 Interview held on 15 August 2022.

225 Interview with Faith, Cate, Samantha, and Yona (13 August, 2022).

226 Interview with Faith held on 13 August, 2022.

227 [2015] eKLR.

228 Ibid para 13.

229 Ibid para 42.

230 Ibid para 43.

231 [2020] eKLR.

232 Ibid para 8.

233 Ibid para 27.

234 Ibid para 34.

235 Ibid.

236 Ristea, supra note 127, 730.

237 Ex -parte C.O, supra note 141, para 38.

238 Ibid.

239 Maunganidze and Formica, supra note 18.

240 Available at file:///C:/Users/pc/Downloads/east_africa_regional_strategy_2018-2022.pdf (accessed on 19 August, 2022).

241 Ibid 39.

242 W Masinde & C O Omolo "Key Factors for Capacity Development for Regional Integration in Africa" (2011) Center for European Integration Studies 1-10.

243 Ibid 9.

244 KNCHR, supra note 94, 37.

245 See for example, s 6.

246 Directive 2004/38/EC of The European Parliament and of The Council on the right of citizens of the Union and their family members to move and reside freely within the territory of the Member States (19 April 2004).

247 Ibid art 15.

248 Ristea, supra note 119, 725. See also, C Banard, The Substantive Law of the EU. The Four Freedoms, 6th edn (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2007) 461.

249 Directive 2004/38/EC, art 27(1).

250 Carens, supra note 51, 262.

251 Directive 2004/38/EC, art 27(2).

252 Ibid.

253 Ibid art 28.

254 See art 3 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child UNTS vol. 1577, p. 3.

255 Ibid.

256 COMESA Protocol on the Free Movement of Persons, Labour, Services, Right of Establishment and Residence, Article 6(3).

257 (2017) UKSC 42.

258 Ibid para 2.

259 Ibid para 43.

260 Constitution of Kenya, art 47. See also, Fair Administrative Action (Act No. 4 of 2015).