Document Type
Article
English Abstract
Uganda has garnered considerable international praise for its ‘open-door’ policies on refugees. This is particularly the case against the backdrop of a global context of the growing phenomenon of states constructing physical and metaphorical walls against the phenomenon of migration, whether forced or voluntary. Nevertheless, such praise conceals a much more complex context of opportunistic strategizing, donor politics and regional geopolitical balancing. In sum, what is lauded as ‘progressive’ is much more problematic and nuanced, especially with respect to the issue of local integration (particularly for long-term refugees), voluntary repatriation and the management and funding of refugee support.
Citation Information
Oloka-Onyango, J..
"Exploring the Multiple Paradoxes and Challenges of Uganda's Refugee Law, Policies and Practice."
The Transnational Human Rights Review
9. (2022)
: 1-30.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.60082/2563-4631.1099
https://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/thr/vol9/iss1/1
References
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18 David James Cantor, 'The End of Refugee Law?' (2017) 9:2 J. Hum. Rights Pract. 203-11. This is obviously not a new claim and has been made intermittently by several scholars across the board. See e.g., Carl Levy,'The Geneva Convention and the European Union: A Fraught Relationship' in Joanne Van Selm, Khoti Kamanga, John Morrison, Aninia Nadig & Sanja M Spoljar-Vrzina, eds, The Refugee Convention at Fifty: A View from Forced Migration Studies (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2003) 129 at 131.
19 Marit Bugge, "Obedience and Dehumanization: Placing the Dublin Regulation within a Historical Context" (2019) 4 J. Hum Rights Soc. Work 91, online: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41134-019-0090-y . https://doi.org/10.1007/s41134-019-0090-y
20 See also Todd Scribner, "You are Not Welcome Here Anymore: Restoring Support for Refugee Resettlement in the Age of Trump" (2017) 5:2 JMHS 263. The most recent enactment by the Trump government denies migrants who cannot afford healthcare entry into the USA. See Agencies, "US immigrants will be denied entry if they can't afford health care" (October 5, 2019) The Guardian, online: https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/oct/05/us-immigrants-will-be-denied-entry-if-they-cant-afford-health-care . https://doi.org/10.14240/jmhs.v5i2.84
21 See Chimène Keitner, "The Law and Politics of the 'Shifting Border" (September 2, 2019), Forthcoming, in Ayelet Shachar, The Shifting Border: Legal Cartographies of Migration and Mobility, Ayelet Shachar in Dialogue, Critical Powers Series, Manchester UP, 2020, online SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3446897 .
22 Thalif Deen, "Treaty Violators Make Mockery of Refugee Convention" (July23,2019) InterPress Service, online: http://www.ipsnews.net/2019/07/treaty-violators-make-mockery-refugee-convention/ .
23 See 'Blaming the Rescuers: Criminalising Solidarity, Reinforcing Deterrence,', at: https://blamingtherescuers.org/
24 Peter J. Croll, "Preface" in, Clara Fischer and Ruth Vollmer (eds.), Migration and Displacement in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Security-Migration Nexus II (Bonn International Center for Conversion February 22-23, 2008) at 4, online: https://www.bicc.de/uploads/tx_bicctools/brief39.pdf .
25 International Organization of Migration, World Migration Report 2018 (IOM, 2018), online: https://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/country/docs/china/r5_world_migration_report_2018_en.pdf .
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27 UNHCR, Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2018, online: https://www.unhcr.org/globaltrends2018/ .
28 See Jingrong Tong & Landong Zuo, "Othering the European Union through constructing moral panics over 'im/migrant(s)' in the coverage of migration in three British newspapers, 2011-2016" (2018) 81:5 International Communication Gazette 445. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048518802237
29 Phillip S.S. Howard, Bryan Chan Yen Johnson & Kevin Ah-Sen, "Ukraine Refugee Crisis Exposes racism and contradictions in the definition of human" (March 22, 2022) The Conversation, online: https://theconversation.com/ukraine-refugee-crisis-exposes-racism-and-contradictionsin-the-definition-of-human-179150 .
30 Bill Frelick, Ian M. Kysel & Jennifer Podkul, "The Impact of Externalization of Migration Controls on the Rights of Asylum Seekers and Other Migrants" (2016) 4:4 JMHS 190, online: https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/supporting_resources/jmhs.pdf . https://doi.org/10.14240/jmhs.v4i4.68
31 See Michael Shear and Julie Davis, Border Wars: Inside Trump's Assault on Immigration, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2019.
32 European Commission, Africa-Europe Alliance: A Political Declaration for a Stronger Partnership in Agriculture, Food and Farming, (June 21, 2019), online: https://ec.europa.eu/info/news/africa-europe-alliance-political-declaration-stronger-partnership-agriculture-food-and-farming2019-jun-21_en .
33 Kandeh K. Yumkella, "How to end migration, unemployment in Africa" (September 24, 2019) Daily Monitor at 30.
34 Moses Crispus Okello, 'There are no refugees in this area': Self-settled refugees in Koboko, Refugee Law Project Working Paper No.19, November 2005, at 3.
35 See 'The African Country that Welcomes Refugees,' (September 23, 2019) BBC News, online: https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-africa49745896/the-displaced-the-african-country-that-welcomesrefugees?fbclid=IwAR0HfzOCKP593zNgxtdH7xI5ek7UyuyGyqzmrIEFjpRYasP3QrRlbGLP0fU .
36 Hovil, supra note 2.
37 Last updated August 31, 2019, online: https://ugandarefugees.org/en/country/uga .
38 UNHCR, Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2018 (UNHCR 20 June 2019), online: https://www.unhcr.org/5d08d7ee7.pdf.
39 S. Lwanga-Lunyiigo, 'Uganda's Long Connection with the Problem of Refugees: From the Polish Refugees of World War II to the Present,' Paper presented at the Makerere Institute of Social Research (20 December 1993), online: https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/bitstream/handle/123456789/5693/lwanga-lunyiigo-MAK-res.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y .
40 For a background see Z. Lomo, A. Naggaga and L. Hovil, The Phenomenon of Forced Migration in Uganda: An Overview of Policy and Practice in an Historical Context, Refugee Law Project Working Paper No. 1, June 2001, online: http://repository.forcedmigration.org/pdf/?pid=fmo:5898.
41 Zachary Lomo, Angela Naggaga & Lucy Hovil The phenomenon of forced migration in Uganda: An overview of Policy and Practice in an Historical Context, Working Paper No.1, June 2001, at 1-7.
42 Emmanuel Bagenda, 'Uganda,' in Zachary A. Lomo (ed.), Marginalisation: The Plight of Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons in East Africa (Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 2012) at 250-256.
43 As at December 31, 2018, IDMC put the number of IDPs in Uganda at 32,000, down from a high of nearly 2 million at the peak of the war in the north of the country in the early-2000s. See Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC), Uganda, online: http://www.internaldisplacement.org/countries/uganda .
44 Refugee Law Project, Compendium of Conflicts in Uganda: Findings of the National Reconciliation and Transitional Justice Audit (2014), online: https://www.refugeelawproject.org/files/others/Compendium_of_Conflicts_final.pdf .
45 See Sián Herbert &Iffat Idris, Refugees in Uganda: (In)Stability, Conflict and Resilience (Rapid Literature Review), (Birmingham, UK: GSDRC, University of Birmingham, April 2018), online: http://gsdrc.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Refugees_in_UgandaInstability_conflict_and_resilience.pdf .
46 For an overview see William Onzivu, The Basic Justifications for Protection of Refugees/Aliens under Ugandan National Law (Primary and Subsidiary Legislation), Policy and Practice, (unpublished).
47 Y-Y Xho, "How Refugees Drive Preferences for Citizenship Exclusion: Evidence from sub-Saharan Africa" APSA 2014 Annual Meeting Paper, online: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract id=2454409.
48 Statutory Instrument No.9/2010.
49 Jamil Ddamulira Mujuzi, "From archaic to modern law: Uganda's Refugees Act 2006 and her International treaty obligations" (2008) 14:2 East Afr. J. Peace Hum. Rights 399.
50 Ibid., at 404.
51 Frank Ahimbisbwe, 'The Legal Status of Refugee Protection and State Obligations in Uganda,' (2016) 13:10 US-China Law Review 730 at 743-745. https://doi.org/10.17265/1548-6605/2016.10.003
52 Office of the Prime Minister, The Comprehensive Refugee Response Framework (CRRF): What is the CRRF?, online: https://opm.go.ug/comprehensive-refugee-response-framework-uganda/ .
53 After more than a decade of operation, the Refugee Act has also come under criticism. See Refugee Law Project, Critique of the Refugees Act 2006 (June 7, 2019), online: https://www.refugeelawproject.org/files/legal_resources/RefugeesActRLPCritique.pdf .
54 International Rescue Committee, A New Response to the Protracted Refugee Crisis in Uganda: A Case Study of World Bank Financing for Refugee-Hosting Nations (November 2018), online: https://www.rescue.org/sites/default/files/document/3286/ugandacasestudyoct262018finalfinal-update.pdf .
55 Barbara Harrell Bond, one of the pioneer scholars of Refugee Studies described these as 'settlements' but they are more appropriately called 'camps.' See B.E. Harrell-Bond, Imposing Aid: Emergency Assistance to Refugees, (Oxford/New York/Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1986) at 8-10.
56 Ben Rawlence, City of Thorns: Nine Lives in the World's Largest Refugee Camp (London and New York: Picador, 2016).
57 Nicholas Maple, Rights at Risk: A thematic investigation into how states restrict the freedom of movement of refugees on the African Continent, (2016) 281 Research Paper UNHCR: New Issues In Refugee Research https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/5857eb794.pdf .
58 Refugee Law Project, Refugees in Kyangwali Settlement: Constraints on Economic Freedom, Working Paper No.7 (May 2002), at 6.
59 Refugee Law Project, 'UPR Uganda 2011: Refugees, Internally Displaced Persons & Transitional Justice Issues for inclusion in the Universal Periodic Review Report under the Refugee and forced migrants cluster,' online: https://lib.ohchr.org/HRBodies/UPR/Documents/session12/UG/RLP-RefugeeLawProject-eng.pdf . [UPR Uganda 2011]
60 Supporting Uganda, 'A Country of Open Door Policy for Refugees': A Step Towards Humanitarian-Development Nexus (June 20, 2018) JICA.
61 John Unzima, "Refugees feed citizens" (May 25, 207) New Vision at 14.
62 Agnes Nantambi, "Refugee turns into model farmer at Panyadoli Camp" (May 21, 2019) New Vision at 12.
63 See Emmanuel Bagenda, Angela Naggaga & Eliot Smith, Land Problems in Nakivale Settlement and the Implications for Refugee Protection in Uganda, Working Paper No.8, May 2003.
64 Isabella Yvonne & Prossy Kisakye, "Oulanyah calls for review of open door policy on refugees" (July 19, 2019) Daily Monitor, online: https://www.monitor.co.ug/News/National/Oulanyah-calls-review-open-door-refugee-policy/688334-5201680-q9ci7az/index.html .
65 Thijs Van Laer, Understanding conflict dynamics around refugee settlements in northern Uganda, (August 2019)IRRI, online: http://refugeerights.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Understanding-conflict-dynamics-around-refugee-settlements-in-northern-Uganda-August-2019.pdf .
66 See Bagenda supra note 43 at 272.
67 Felix Wrom Okello, "South Sudan refugee shoots police officer" (October 14, 2019) Daily Monitor at 6.
68 Tharanga Yakupitiyage, "Why Environmental and Humanitarian Action Must Be Linked" (September 27, 2019) IPS News Agency, online: http://www.ipsnews.net/2019/07/environmental-humanitarian-action-mustlinked/?fbclid=IwAR18UyoFM43T_zKFBYl4kPDHhd3oNioD7S2yT2lQuSjGYJ8RIhJdhK5W-00 .
69 Thijs van Laer, "Uganda needs more support to fight environment abuse at refugee camps," (June 20, 2019) Daily Monitor at 13.
70 Irene Dawa, "Conflict Dynamics in the Bidi Bidi refugee Settlement in Uganda" (February 11, 2019) ACCORD, online: https://www.accord.org.za/conflict-trends/conflict-dynamics-in-the-bidibidi-refugee-settlement-in-uganda/ .
71 See John Unzima, "Refugee turns to briquettes to curb conflict" (October 2, 2019) New Vision at 10, and Owen Wagabaza, "Refugees restore lost forest cover" (June 2, 2019) New Vision at 38.
72 Lalisa Duguma, Charles Ariani, Cathy Watson, Clement A Okia, Judith Nzyoka , State of biomass resources in refugee hosting landscapes: The case of Rhino Camp and Imvepi Refugee Settlements in West Nile, Uganda, Nairobi: World Agroforestry Working Paper No. 297.
73 Wilson Asiimwe, "Govt equips communities hosting refugees" (August 5, 2019) New Vision at 16.
74 See Section 29(e), Refugee Act, 2006.
75 Gonzaga Mbalangu, "Refugees: A giant sleeping under the weight of policy confusion" (August 7-13, 2019) The Observer, online: https://observer.ug/viewpoint/61570-refugees-a-giant-sleeping-under-the-weight-of-policy-confusion-2 .
76 Jesse Bernstein and Moses C. Okello, "To Be or Not to Be: Urban Refugees in Kampala" (2007) 24:1 Refuge 46. https://doi.org/10.25071/1920-7336.21367
77 Michael Addaney, "A step forward in the protection of urban refugees: The legal protection of the rights of urban refugees in Uganda" (2017) 17:1 AHRLJ 218. https://doi.org/10.17159/1996-2096/2017/v17n1a10
78 Eveliina Lyytinen, "Congolese refugees' 'right to the city' and urban (in)security in Kampala, Uganda" (2015) 9:4 J. East. Afr. Stud. 593-611. https://doi.org/10.1080/17531055.2015.1116142
79 This situation is confirmed by the UNHCR six 'Priority Outcomes,' viz. 1. Refugee protection; 2. Emergency response; 3. Education; 4. Environment; 5. Livelihoods, and 6. Urban refugees. See UNHCR, Country Refugee Response Plan of January 2019 to December 2020, online: http://reporting.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/Uganda%20Country%20RRP%202019-20%20%28January%202019%29.pdf .
80 See Refugee Law Project, 'A Drop in the Ocean': Assistance and Protection for Forced Migrants in Kampala, Working Paper No.16 (May 2005).
81 Refugee Law Project, Free to Stay, Free to Go? Movement, Seclusion and Integration of Refugees in Moyo District, Working Paper No.4 (May 2002) at 8-12.
82 Deborah Mulumba, "African Refugees: Challenges and Survival Strategies of Rural and Urban Integration in Uganda" (2010) 9:1 Mawazo at 220-221.
83 See World Bank, Informing the Refugee Policy Response in Uganda: Results from the Uganda Refugee and Host Communities 2018 Household Survey (October 1, 2019), online: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/571081569598919068/pdf/Informing-the-RefugeePolicy-Response-in-Uganda-Results-from-the-Uganda-Refugee-and-Host-Communities-2018-Household-Survey.pdf.
84 Refugee Law Project, 'UPR Uganda 2011,' supra note 60.
85 Ibid.
86 UNHCR regards protracted caseloads to be those of people who have stayed more than five years outside their home countries.
87 See Arnold‐Fernández, supra note 14.
88 Republic of Uganda, The Report of the Uganda Constitutional Commission: Analysis and Recommendations (Entebbe: UPPC, 1993) para 6, 101; p. 126.
89 Charles Bafaki, The Question of Protracted Refugee Case Loads in Uganda: A Case Study of the Lumumbist Refugees at Kyaka-2 Refugee Settlement, Unpublished Master of Laws (LL.M) thesis, Makerere University, Kampala, 2015.
90 In re: Centre for Public Interest Law & Salima Namusobya v. Attorney General, Constitutional Petition No.34 of 2010, online: https://refugeelawproject.org/files/others/constitutional_court_ruling_on_refugees_eligibility_to_become_Ugandans.pdf .
91 CREA, 'The Eligibility for Refugees to Acquire Ugandan Citizenship,' (March 22, 2016) Citizenship Rights in Africa Initiative Newsletter, online: http://citizenshiprightsafrica.org/the-eligibility-for-refugees-to-acquire-ugandan-citizenship/ .
92 Samuel G. Walker, 'From Refugee to Citizen? Obstacles to the Naturalisation of Refugees in Uganda,' RLP Briefing Paper, online: https://www.refugeelawproject.org/files/briefing_papers/Naturalisation_Of_Refugees.pdf . 93 Tigranna Zakaryan, Report on Citizenship Law Uganda, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies/Edinburgh University Law School, Country Report 05/2019 (May 2019) 21-22, online: https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/62485/RSCAS_GLOBALCIT_CR_2019_05.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y .
94 Yasin Omar v. Attorney General, February 15, 2016, The Equal Opportunities Commission, EOC Ref No. EOC/CR/010/2016.
95 G. Cole, "'Refugees' Integration in Uganda Will Require Renewed Lobbying" (2014) 48 FMR 69, online: http://www.fmreview.org/faith/cole .
96 Bronwen Manby, Statelessness and Citizenship in the East African Community, (UNHCR, September 2018) 70-71, online: . https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3783292
97 See J. Oloka-Onyango, "From Expulsion to Exclusion: Revisiting Race, Citizenship and the Ethnicity Conundrum in Contemporary Uganda" (2017) 12:1&2 Mawazo 1 at 14-15.
98 Lucy Hovil and Zachary A. Lomo, "Forced Displacement and the Crisis of Citizenship in Africa's Great Lakes Region: Rethinking Refugee Protection and Durable Solutions" (2015) 31:2 Refuge 39, online: https://refuge.journals.yorku.ca/index.php/refuge/article/view/40308/36350 . https://doi.org/10.25071/1920-7336.40308
99 For a good analysis of these issues see Kristin Bergtora Sandvik, "On the Social Life of International Organisations: Framing Accountability in Refugee Resettlement" in Jan Wouters, Eva Brems, Stefaan Smis and Pierre Schmitt (eds.), Accountability for Human Rights Violations by International Organisations (Antwerp/Oxford/Portland: Intersentia, 2010) at 290-292.
100 Frank Ahimbisibwe, Rwandan Refugee Physical (In)Security in Uganda: Views from Below,' Working Paper/2017.03, University of Antwerp. Also see Frank Ahimbisibwe, Voluntary' Repatriation of Rwandan Refugees in Uganda: Analysis of Law and Practice, University of Antwerp, Working Paper/ 2017.08, DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.25363.37926.
101 See Refugee Law Project, 'UPR Uganda 2011,' supra note 60.
102 Charles Etukuri, "32 Rwandans Deported" (September 14, 2019) New Vision at 4.
103 United Nations Development Program, Uganda's Contribution to Refugee Protection and Management, UNDP (2017), online: https://data2.unhcr.org/en/documents/download/64687 .
104 Government of Uganda, 2019-2020 Uganda Refugee Response Plan: Coordination of the Refugee Response (May 2018).
105 Ibid.
106 Moses Walubiri, "Refugees host communities receive sh555b" (July 15, 2019) New Vision, online: https://www.newvision.co.ug/new_vision/news/1503573/refugee-host-communities-receive-sh555b.
107 See Monitor Report, "Kadaga slams donors over refugee cash" (August 8, 2019) Daily Monitor at 6.
108 Joshua B. Rubongoya, "'Movement legacy' and neoliberalism as political settlement in Uganda's political economy" in Jörg Wiegratz, Giuliano Martinello & Elisa Greco (eds.), Uganda: The Dynamics of Neoliberal Transformation (London: Zed Books, 2018). https://doi.org/10.5040/9781350223721.ch-004
109 See Moses Khisa, Shrinking democratic space? Crisis of consensus and contentious politics in Uganda,' (2019) 59:3 Commonw. Comp. Politics 343, online: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14662043.2019.1576277?src=recsys . https://doi.org/10.1080/14662043.2019.1576277
110 Rodney Muhumuza, "Uganda: As Refugee Influx Persists, UN Cites Funding Gap" (September 12, 2019) Associated Press, online: https://news.yahoo.com/uganda-refugee-influx-persists-un-111650347.html .
111 Benjamin Jumbe, "Refugee Cash: Donors ask government to punish culprits" (October 31, 2019) Daily Monitor, online: https://www.monitor.co.ug/News/National/Refugee-cash--Donors-ask-government-to-punish-culprits/688334-5330664-w0ed26/index.html .
112 Rose Ampurira, "OPM, UNHCR Abused Refugee Funds-Report" (June 26, 2019) Red Pepper 6-7.
113 Awira Anthony, Analysis of the Performance of United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) in Uganda, 1995-2000, Unpublished Bachelor of Statistics (B.Stat) dissertation, Makerere University, 2003 at 36.
114 Cecilia Okoth, "Government queries donors over refugee funds" (September 4, 2019) New Vision at 3.
115 See Jonathan Fisher, International Perceptions and African Agency: Uganda and its donors 1986-2010, unpublished University of Oxford Doctor of Philosophy (DPhil) degree, 2011.
116 Andrew M. Mwenda & Roger Tangri, "Patronage Politics, Donor Reforms, and Regime Consolidation in Uganda" (2005) 104:416 African Affairs 449, online: https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adi030 . https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adi030
117 International Refugee Rights Initiative, I was left with nothing': 'Voluntary' Departures of Asylum Seekers from Israel to Rwanda and Uganda (September 2015) online: https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/55ee8c3a4.pdf .
118 Although denied by the government, allegations point to the receipt of between US$2,000 and 3,000 per refugee. See "Uganda Finally Accepts to Resettle Sudanese, Eritrean Refugees Deported from Israel" (April 13, 2018) Softpower News, online: https://www.softpower.ug/ugandafinally-accepts-to-resettle-sudanese-eritrean-refugees-deported-from-israel/ .
119 Bart Kakooza, & Emmanuel Mutaizibwa, "Stateless: Eritreans secretly moved to Uganda" (July 8, 2019) Daily Monitor at 32.
120 See Amnesty International, Forced and Unlawful: Israel's Deportation of Eritrean and Sudanese Asylum Seekers to Uganda, 18 June 2018, Index number: MDE 15/8479/2018, see Table 5 at 27-28, online: https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/MDE1584792018ENGLISH.PDF .
121 Ibid., at 28.
122 Jonathan Fisher, "When it pays to be a 'fragile state': Uganda's use and abuse of a dubious concept" (2014) 35:2 TWQ 316. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2014.878493
123 Cecilia Okoth, "Government queries donors over refugee funds" (September 4, 2019) New Vision at 3.
