How the Dissent in Sharma Opens the Door to Indigenize the Section 15(1) Charter Analysis

Authors

Alana Robert, McCarthy Tétrault LLP

Abstract

This paper explores how the dissenting opinion in R. v. Sharma opens the door for Indigenizing the analysis under section 15(1) of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. It considers how the dissenting opinion creates a pathway for strengthening Indigenous women’s rights under section 15(1) by expanding the range of impacts considered when assessing disadvantage in the equality analysis. It argues that in a case alleging a violation of Indigenous people’s section 15(1) rights, the courts can consider the impugned law’s impacts on Indigenous laws, including Indigenous people’s roles under those laws. Any interference with these roles should be recognized as a harm that reinforces, perpetuates and exacerbates the disadvantage of Indigenous peoples at the second stage of the section 15(1) Charter analysis. This paper (1) reviews the importance of recognizing Indigenous laws relating to Indigenous women when adjudicating Charter rights; (2) considers how the dissenting opinion facilitates recognition of Indigenous laws in the equality analysis; and (3) explores how the “constitutional imperative of reconciliation” can form a paramount consideration in future determinations of equality rights. The explicit recognition of the importance of reconciliation and the implicit acknowledgement of Indigenous laws by the dissenting judges form part of a developing trend of judicial engagement with these principles, and signals a potentially transformative development in equality rights jurisprudence. The distinct constitutional status of Indigenous peoples in Canada can be reflected through the meaningful consideration of Indigenous laws in the adjudication of section 15(1) Charter rights. In the case of Sharma where Indigenous women faced incarceration, Indigenous laws on the roles and responsibilities held by Indigenous women tell a different part of the story on how Canadian laws reinforce, perpetuate or exacerbate disadvantage – not only to the woman confronting removal from her family and community, but also to those around her. Engaging with these broader considerations allow for a more holistic analysis under section 15(1) of the Charter.

Citation Information

Robert, Alana. "How the Dissent in Sharma Opens the Door to Indigenize the Section 15(1) Charter Analysis." The Supreme Court Law Review: Osgoode’s Annual Constitutional Cases Conference 115. (2024).
DOI: https://doi.org/10.60082/2563-8505.1450
https://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/sclr/vol115/iss1/8

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 4.0 License.

References

1 This paper is informed and inspired by the Ontario Native Women's Association intervention in R. v. Sharma, [2022] S.C.J. No. 39, 2022 SCC 39 (S.C.C.) [hereinafter "Sharma"].

2 Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (U.K.), 1982, c. 11 [hereinafter "Charter"].

3 Sharma at paras. 42-49, 205.

4 Sharma at paras. 3, 29, 31, 32(a), 35-36, 40-42, 45-50, 54, 66, 71, 73-74, 76 and 205.

5 Sharma at paras. 57-61, 205. Sonia Lawrence & Debra Parkes, "R v Turtle: Substantive Equality Touches Down in Treaty 5 Territory" (2021) 66 C.R. (7th) 430; J. Koshan, "Intersections and Roads Untravelled: Sex and Family Status in Fraser v Canada" (2021) 30:2 Const. Forum 29; Jonnette Watson Hamilton & Jennifer Koshan, "Sharma: The Erasure of Both Group-Based Disadvantage and Individual Impact", in this volume; Debra Parkes & Sonia Lawrence, "R. v. Sharma: Reckoning with Destabilizing Truths in Constitutional Equality Adjudication", in this volume. https://doi.org/10.21991/cf29420

6 Sharma at para. 204, citing Quebec (Attorney General) v. Alliance du personnel professionnel et technique de la santé et des services sociaux, [2018] S.C.J. No. 17 at para. 25, 2018 SCC 17 (S.C.C.); Centrale des syndicats du Québec v. Quebec (Attorney General), [2018] S.C.J. No. 18 at para. 22, 2018 SCC 18 (S.C.C.); Fraser v. Canada (Attorney General), [2020] S.C.J. No. 28 at para. 27, 2020 SCC 28 (S.C.C.) [hereinafter "Fraser"]; Ontario (Attorney General) v. G, [2020] S.C.J. No. 38 at para. 40, 2020 SCC 38 (S.C.C.); R. v. P. (C.), [2021] S.C.J. No. 19 at paras. 56 and 141, 2021 SCC 19 (S.C.C.).

7 Sharma at para. 206.

8 National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, "Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls", Volume 1A (2019), online: https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a-1.pdf.

9 Caution and care must be taken when considering Indigenous women's roles, including on motherhood. See, generally, E. Snyder, V. Napoleon & J. Borrows, "Gender and Violence: Drawing on Indigenous Legal Resources" (2015) 48:2 U.B.C. Law Rev. Soc. 593.

10 Iskatewizaagegan No. 39 Independent First Nation v. Winnipeg (City), [2021] O.J. No. 802 at para. 48, 2021 ONSC 1209 (Ont. S.C.J.).

11 V. Napoleon, "Thinking About Indigenous Legal Orders" in R. Provost & C. Sheppard, Dialogues on Human Rights and Legal Pluralism (Dordrecht: Springer, 2012) at 2-4; https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4710-4_11; J. Borrows, Canada's Indigenous Constitution (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2010) at 51-52.

12 Iskatewizaagegan No. 39 Independent First Nation v. Winnipeg (City), [2021] O.J. No. 802 at para. 48, 2021 ONSC 1209 (Ont. S.C.J.).

13 R. v. Holmes, [2018] A.J. No. 1308 at para. 2, 2018 ABQB 916 (Alta. Q.B.); L. Chartrand & K. Horn, "A Report on the Relationship between Restorative Justice and Indigenous Legal Traditions in Canada", Department of Justice, Canada (2016), online: https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/jr/rjilt-jrtja/rjilt-jrtja.pdf at 11.

14 Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, "Honouring the Truth, Reconciling the Future" (2015), online: at 17; H. Friedland & V. Napoleon, "Gathering the Threads: Developing a Methodology for Researching and Rebuilding Indigenous Legal Traditions" (2015) 1:1 Lakehead L.J. 16 at 17.

15 V. Napoleon, "What Is Indigenous Law? A Small Discussion" (Victoria: University of Victoria, Indigenous Law Research Unit, 2016), online: https://www.uvic.ca/law/assets/docs/ilru/What%20is%20Indigenous%20Law%20Oct%2028%202016.pdf at 2; L. Chartrand & K. Horn, "A Report on the Relationship between Restorative Justice and Indigenous Legal Traditions in Canada", Department of Justice, Canada (2016), online: https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/jr/rjilt-jrtja/rjilt-jrtja.pdf at 6.

16 V. Napoleon, "What Is Indigenous Law? A Small Discussion" (Victoria: University of Victoria, Indigenous Law Research Unit, 2016), online: https://www.uvic.ca/law/assets/docs/ilru/What%20is%20Indigenous%20Law%20Oct%2028%202016.pdf at 2.

17 L. Ulrich & D. Gill, "The Tricksters Speak: Klooscap and Wesakechak, Indigenous Law, and the New Brunswick Land Use Negotiation" (2016) 61:4 McGill L.J. 979 at 1007. See also: J. Borrows, "Heroes, Tricksters, Monsters, and Caretakers: Indigenous Law and Legal Education" (2016) 61:4 McGill L.J. 795 at 797. https://doi.org/10.7202/1038494ar

18 Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, "Honouring the Truth, Reconciling the Future" (2015), online: https://irsi.ubc.ca/sites/default/files/inline-files/Executive_Summary_English_Web.pdf at 17, V. Napoleon, "What Is Indigenous Law? A Small Discussion" (Victoria: University of Victoria, Indigenous Law Research Unit, 2016), online: https://www.uvic.ca/law/assets/docs/ilru/What%20is%20Indigenous%20Law%20Oct%2028%202016.pdf at 2-3; J. Borrows, Canada's Indigenous Constitution (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2010) at 23-24.

19 Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, "Honouring the Truth, Reconciling the Future" (2015), online: https://irsi.ubc.ca/sites/default/files/inline-files/Executive_Summary_English_Web.pdf at 17; L. Chartrand & K. Horn, "A Report on the Relationshipbetween Restorative Justice and Indigenous Legal Traditions in Canada", Department of Justice, Canada (2016), online: https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/jr/rjilt-jrtja/rjilt-jrtja.pdf at 10; J. Borrows, Canada's Indigenous Constitution (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2010) at 23-24; Emily Snyder, "Queering Indigenous Legal Studies" (2015) 38:2 Dal. L.J. 591 at 596.

20 E. Snyder, V. Napoleon & J. Borrows, "Gender and Violence: Drawing on Indigenous Legal Resources" (2015) 48:2 U.B.C. Law Rev. Soc. 593 at 614.

21 Guide for Lawyers Working with Indigenous Peoples, 2018 38th Annual Civil Litigation Conference, online: https://www.canlii.org/en/commentary/doc/2018CanLIIDocs10788#!fragment/zoupio-_Tocpdf_bk_2/BQCwhgziBcwMYgK4DsDWszIQewE4BUBTADwBdoAvbRABwEtsBaAfX2zhoBMAzZgI1TMATAEoANMmylCEAIqJCuAJ7QA5KrERCYXAnmKV6zdt0gAynlIAhFQCUAogBl7ANQCCAOQDC9saTB80KTsIiJAA at 19.

22 See, e.g., R. v. Van der Peet, [1996] S.C.J. No. 77 at para. 263, [1996] 2 S.C.R. 507 (S.C.C.) (dissenting on other grounds); Delgamuukw v. British Columbia, [1997] S.C.J. No. 108 at paras. 147-148, [1997] 3 S.C.R. 1010 (S.C.C.); Mitchell v. Canada (Minister of National Revenue - M.N.R.), [2001] S.C.J. No. 33 at para. 10, 2001 SCC 33 (S.C.C.). See also: Pastion v. Dene Tha' First Nation, [2018] F.C.J. No. 664 at para. 8, 2018 FC 648 (F.C.); Clark v. Abegweit First Nation Band Council, [2019] F.C.J. No. 581 at para. 79, 2019 FC 721 (F.C.).

23 Mitchell v. Canada (Minister of National Revenue - M.N.R.), [2001] S.C.J. No. 33, 2001 SCC 33 (S.C.C.).

24 Mitchell v. Canada (Minister of National Revenue - M.N.R.), [2001] S.C.J. No. 33 at para. 10, 2001 SCC 33 (S.C.C.).

25 Pastion v. Dene Tha' First Nation, [2018] F.C.J. No. 664, 2018 FC 648 (F.C.).

26 Pastion v. Dene Tha' First Nation, [2018] F.C.J. No. 664 at para. 8, 2018 FC 648 (F.C.).

27 Alderville First Nation v. Canada, [2014] F.C.J. No. 1377, 2014 FC 747 (F.C.).

28 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res., UN-GAOR, 61st Sess., Supp. No. 49, UN Doc A/RES/61/295 (2007).

29 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act, S.C. 2021, c. 14, s. 4.

30 L. Chartrand & K. Horn, "A Report on the Relationship between Restorative Justice and Indigenous Legal Traditions in Canada", Department of Justice, Canada (2016), online: https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/jr/rjilt-jrtja/rjilt-jrtja.pdf at 10.

31 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res., UNGAOR, 61st Sess., Supp. No. 49, UN Doc A/RES/61/295 (2007) at art. 43.

32 Clark v. Abegweit First Nation Band Council, [2019] F.C.J. No. 581 at para. 79, 2019 FC 721 (F.C.).

33 National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, "Interim Report: Our Women and Girls are Sacred" (2017) at 3, 4, 77.

34 National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, "Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls", Volume 1A (2019), online: https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a-1.pdf at 38-39.

35 National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, "Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls", Volume 1A (2019), online: https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a-1.pdf at at 40.

36 National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, "Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls", Volume 1A (2019), online: https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a-1.pdf at 40.

37 National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, "Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls", Volume 1A (2019), online: https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a-1.pdf at 40.

38 National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, "Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls", Volume 1A (2019), online: https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a-1.pdf at 40.

39 National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, "Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls", Volume 1A (2019), online: https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a-1.pdf at 41.

40 National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, "Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls", Volume 1A (2019), online: https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a-1.pdf at 129.

41 National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, "Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls", Volume 1A (2019), online: https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a-1.pdf at 148-149, 181.

42 Ontario Native Women's Association, "Reconciliation with Indigenous Women" (2020), online: https://www.onwa.ca/_files/ugd/4eaa9c_be059fe0cd844671839aef58558d893d.pdf at 9.

43 See, e.g., National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, "Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls", Volume 1A (2019), online: https://www.mmiwgffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a-1.pdf at 64, 149; Aboriginal Justice Implementation Commission (2001), online: "Chapter 13 - Aboriginal Women" http://www.ajic.mb.ca/volumel/chapter13.html.

44 The Law Foundation of Ontario, Anishinabek Nation Legal Department, "Revitalization of Anishinabek Legal Traditions: Regional Sessions Final Summary Report" (2018), online: https://www.anishinabek.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Revitalization-of-Anishinabek-Legal-Traditions-Final-Report.pdf at 13, 19.

45 See, e.g., "The Woman's Part", quoted in Ontario Native Women's Association, "Breaking Free - A Proposal for Change to Aboriginal Family Violence", December 1989, online: 4eaa9c_2aa296f8bfd24059a1782f22c195af07.pdf (onwa.ca) at ii.46 Quoted in Government of Canada, Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, "Canada's Residential Schools: The final report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada", Vol. 6 (2015), online: https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2015/trc/IR4-9-6-2015-eng.pdf at 160.

47 R. v. Bushby, [2021] O.J. No. 3084 at para. 30, 2021 ONSC 4082 (Ont. S.C.J.), quoting the Ontario Native Women's Association.

48 R. v. Bushby, [2021] O.J. No. 3084 at para. 36, 2021 ONSC 4082 (Ont. S.C.J.).

49 R. v. Bushby, [2021] O.J. No. 3084 at para. 36, 2021 ONSC 4082 (Ont. S.C.J.).

50 National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, "Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls", Volume 1A (2019), online: https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a-1.pdf at 174.

51 National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, "Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls", Volume 1A (2019), online: https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a-1.pdf at 129.

52 Government of Canada, Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, "Canada's Residential Schools: The final report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada", Vol. 6 (2015), online: https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2015/trc/IR4-9-6-2015-eng.pdf at 161.

53 Government of Canada, Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, "Canada's Residential Schools: The final report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada", Vol. 6 (2015), online: https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2015/trc/IR4-9-6-2015-eng.pdf at 161.

54 National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, "Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls", Volume 1A (2019), online: https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a-1.pdf at 129.

55 R. v. Holmes, [2018] A.J. No. 1308 at para. 2, 2018 ABQB 916 (Alta. Q.B.).

56 R. v. Turtle, [2020] O.J. No. 4259, 2020 ONCJ 429 (Ont. C.J.) [hereinafter "Turtle"]

57 R. v. Turtle, [2020] O.J. No. 4259 at para. 2, 2020 ONCJ 429 (Ont. C.J.) .

58 Turtle at para. 4.

59 Turtle at paras. 5, 23.

60 Turtle at paras. 91, 93-95.

61 Turtle at para. 99.

62 Turtle at para. 100.

63 Sonia Lawrence & Debra Parkes, "R v Turtle: Substantive Equality Touches Down in Treaty 5 Territory" (2021) 66 C.R. (7th) 430 at 441, 434.

64 Sonia Lawrence & Debra Parkes, "R v Turtle: Substantive Equality Touches Down in Treaty 5 Territory" (2021) 66 C.R. (7th) 430 at 445.

65 Kahkewistahaw First Nation v. Taypotat, [2015] S.C.J. No. 30 at para. 20, 2015 SCC 30 (S.C.C.).

66 Sharma at para. 188.

67 Sharma at para. 187, citing Withler v. Canada (Attorney General), [2011] S.C.J. No. 12 at para. 39, 2011 SCC 12 (S.C.C.) [hereinafter "Withler"].

68 Sharma at para. 188, citing Fraser at para. 27.

69 Sharma at para. 190, citing Fraser at para. 50.

70 Sharma at para. 190, citing Fraser at para. 52.

71 Sharma at para. 188, citing Fraser at para. 27.

72 Sharma at para. 189 citing Withler at para. 64.

73 Fraser at para. 76, quoting Withler at para. 66.

74 Sharma at para. 183, citing Fraser at para. 76, quoting C. Sheppard, Inclusive Equality: The Relational Dimensions of Systemic Discrimination in Canada (Montreal: Mc-Gill‑Queen's University Press, 2010) at 62-63.

75 Fraser at para. 42, quoting Withler at para. 43; Kahkewistahaw First Nation v. Taypotat, [2015] S.C.J. No. 30 at para. 17, 2015 SCC 30 (S.C.C.).

76 Sharma at para. 193, citing F. Faraday, "One Step Forward, Two Steps Back? Substantive Equality, Systemic Discrimination and Pay Equity at the Supreme Court of Canada" (2020) 94 S.C.L.R. (2d) 301 at 310 https://doi.org/10.60082/2563-8505.1385; see also J. Koshan, "Intersections and Roads Untravelled: Sex and Family Status in Fraser v Canada" (2021) 30:2 Const. Forum 29 at 31. https://doi.org/10.21991/cf29420

77 Sharma at para. 128.

78 Sharma at para. 234, citing National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, "Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls", Volume 1A (2019), online: https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a-1.pdf at 281-283.

79 Sharma at para. 235, citing C.A. reasons at para. 96, quoting Ontario Human Rights Commission, "Interrupted childhoods: Over-representation of Indigenous and Black children in Ontario child welfare" (2018), online: https://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/interrupted-childhoods at 27-28.

80 Sharma at para. 239, citing R. v. Ipeelee, [2012] S.C.J. No. 13 at para. 74, 2012 SCC 13 (S.C.C.).

81 Sharma at para. 240 (references omitted).

82 Sharma at para. 241.

83 National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, "Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls", Volume 1A (2019), online: https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a-1.pdf at 166-67, 399, 409.

84 National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, "Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls", Volume 1A (2019), online: https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a-1.pdf at 154, 188.

85 Sharma at para. 196.

86 See, e.g., National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, "Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls", Volume 1A (2019), online: https://www.mmiwgffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a-1.pdf at 391, 663.

87 R.S.C. 1985, c. C-46.

88 Sharma at para. 133, citing R. v. Gladue, [1999] S.C.J. No. 19 at para. 37, [1999] 1 S.C.R. 688 (S.C.C.) [hereinafter "Gladue"].

89 Sharma at para. 134, citing Gladue at para. 66.

90 Sharma at para. 213, citing Ewert at para. 58.

91 Hansard, 35th Parl., 1st Sess., Vol. 133, No. 93 (September 20, 1994) at 5873.

92 Gladue at paras. 45-48, 64.

93 Sharma at para. 125, citing Office of the Correctional Investigator, Annual Report 2020-2021 (2021), online: https://oci-bec.gc.ca/en/content/office-correctional-investigatorannual-report-2021-2022 at 41

94 Sharma at para. 126, citing Ewert at para. 60.

95 Sharma at para. 142.

96 National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, "Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls", Volume 1A (2019), online: https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a-1.pdf> at 643, 719.

97 Sharma at para. 127, citing Office of the Correctional Investigator, Annual Report2014-2015 (2015), online: https://oci-bec.gc.ca/en/media/46 at 50.

98 Sharma at para. 127, citing K. Miller, "Canada's Mother-Child Program and Incarcerated Aboriginal Mothers: How and Why the Program is Inaccessible to Aboriginal Female Offenders" (2018) 37 C.F.L.Q. 1 at 7.

99 National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, "Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls", Volume 1A (2019), online: https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a-1.pdf at 637.

100 E. Snyder, V. Napoleon & J. Borrows, "Gender and Violence: Drawing on Indigenous Legal Resources" (2015) 48:2 U.B.C. L. Rev. Soc. 593 at 601.

101 Sharma at para. 122.

102 R. v. Sharma, [2020] O.J. No. 3183 at paras. 6-10, 91-92, 2020 ONCA 478 (Ont. C.A.).

103 National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, "Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls", Volume 1A (2019), online: https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a-1.pdf at 637, 643-44. Of course, it cannot be overlooked that non-carceral alternatives such as healing lodges, treatment centres and conditional sentences are often not meaningfully available to Indigenous women because these options often have limited availability and financial barriers. These barriers to access are often even more profound for women living in northern and/or remote areas. See, e.g., Sonia Lawrence & Debra Parkes, "R. v. Turtle: Substantive Equality Touches Down in Treaty 5 Territory" (2021) 66 C.R. (7th) 430 at 436-437.

104 Sharma at para. 241, citing Gladue at para. 66(B); R. v. Ipeelee, [2012] S.C.J. No. 13 at para. 66, 2012 SCC 13 (S.C.C.).

105 Sharma at para. 114 (citations omitted).

106 Anderson v. Alberta, [2022] S.C.J. No. 6, 2022 SCC 6 (S.C.C.)

107 Anderson v. Alberta, [2022] S.C.J. No. 6 at para. 4, 2022 SCC 6 (S.C.C.).

108 Anderson v. Alberta, [2022] S.C.J. No. 6 at para. 44, 2022 SCC 6 (S.C.C.).

109 Constitution Act, 1982, Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (U.K.), 1982, c. 11.

110 Chippewas of Saugeen First Nation v. South Bruce Peninsula (Town), [2023] O.J. No. 1767 at para. 46, 2023 ONSC 2056 (Ont. S.C.J.) [hereinafter "Chippewas of Saugeen"], citing Beckman v. Little Salmon/Carmacks First Nation, [2010] S.C.J. No. 53 at para. 10, 2010 SCC 53 (S.C.C.).

111 Mikisew Cree First Nation v. Canada (Minister of Canadian Heritage), [2005] S.C.J. No. 71 at para. 1, 2005 SCC 69 (S.C.C.).

112 Chippewas of Saugeen at para. 46.

113 Chippewas of Saugeen at para. 46, citing Restoule v. Canada (Attorney General), [2021] O.J. No. 6228 at para. 133, 2021 ONCA 779 (Ont. C.A.), citing Manitoba Metis Federation Inc. v. Canada (Attorney General), [2013] S.C.J. No. 14 at para. 71, 2013 SCC 14 (S.C.C.)

Mikisew Cree First Nation v. Canada (Minister of Canadian Heritage), [2005] S.C.J. No. 71 at para. 1, 2005 SCC 69 (S.C.C.).

114 Chippewas of Saugeen at para. 693.

115 Chippewas of Saugeen at para. 693.

116 Chippewas of Saugeen at paras. 6, 23.

117 AltaLink Management Ltd v. Alberta (Utilities Commission), [2021] A.J. No. 1385 at para. 114, 2021 ABCA 342 (Alta. C.A.) [hereinafter "AltaLink"] (concurring).

118 AltaLink at para. 122 (concurring).

119 AltaLink at para. 123 (concurring).

120 AltaLink at para. 115 (concurring).

121 Sharma at para. 114.