Un-Democratizing the City? Unwritten Constitutional Principles and Ontario’sStrong Mayor Powers

Authors

Alexandra Flynn, University of British Columbia

Abstract

As both governments and administrative bodies, municipalities are complicated legal entities under Canadian law. The result is a contradictory medley of legislation and case law that has tried to make sense of this dual role of cities. This complex characterization of municipalities was acutely felt in 2022, when the Province of Ontario introduced legislation that allowed some mayors to exercise power with a one-third vote of city council. I suggest that this legislation sought to frame municipal legal status more squarely to that of an administrative body rather than a government. This paper examines the backdrop to this legislative change, and options for municipalities and their citizens, including an action on the basis of the unwritten constitutional principle of democracy. I argue that municipalities must challenge these actions forcefully and directly by strongly asserting their status as democratic governments — not through the courts, but in their city council chambers.

Citation Information

Flynn, Alexandra. "Un-Democratizing the City? Unwritten Constitutional Principles and Ontario’sStrong Mayor Powers." The Supreme Court Law Review: Osgoode’s Annual Constitutional Cases Conference 115. (2024).
DOI: https://doi.org/10.60082/2563-8505.1447
https://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/sclr/vol115/iss1/5

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 4.0 License.

References

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2 Andrew Sancton, Canadian Local Government: An Urban Perspective (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015) at 3-5.

3 Stéphane Émard-Chabot, Mary Eberts & William B. Henderson, "Factum of the Intervener, Federation of Canadian Municipalities in Toronto (City) v. Ontario (Attorney General), 2019 ONCA 732", online: http://www.ontariocourts.ca/coa/C65861/files/C65861.FOI.FederationofCanadianMunicipalities.pdf at 3.

4 Stéphane Émard-Chabot, Mary Eberts & William B. Henderson, "Factum of the Intervener, Federation of Canadian Municipalities in Toronto (City) v. Ontario (Attorney General), 2019 ONCA 732", online: http://www.ontariocourts.ca/coa/C65861/files/C65861.FOI.FederationofCanadianMunicipalities.pdf at 3.

5 Stéphane Émard-Chabot, Mary Eberts & William B. Henderson, "Factum of the Intervener, Federation of Canadian Municipalities in Toronto (City) v. Ontario (Attorney General), 2019 ONCA 732", online: http://www.ontariocourts.ca/coa/C65861/files/C65861.FOI.FederationofCanadianMunicipalities.pdf at 3.

6 Stanley Makuch, Neil Craik & Signe B. Leisk, Canadian Municipal and Planning Law (Toronto: Thomson Carswell, 2004). See also William J. Novak, The People's Welfare (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).

7 Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (U.K.), 1982, c. 11 [hereinafter "Charter"].

8 Reference re Secession of Quebec, [1998] S.C.J. No. 61 at para. 61, [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217 (S.C.C.).

9 Charter, s. 3; Toronto (City) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [2021] S.C.J. No. 34, 2021 SCC 34 (S.C.C.).

10 Kim Lane Scheppele, "Autocratic Legalism" (2023) 85 U. Chicago L. Rev. 545, online: https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6085&context=uclrev.

11 Kim Lane Scheppele, "Autocratic Legalism" (2023) 85 U. Chicago L. Rev. 545, online: https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6085&context=uclrev at 547.

12 Constitution Act, 1867 (U.K.), 30 & 31 Vict., c. 3, reprinted in R.S.C. 1985, App. II, No. 5, s. 92(8). See, e.g., Daniel Weistock, "Federalism and Cities" in James E. Sterling & Jacob T. Levy, eds., Federalism and Subsidiarity (New York: New York University Press, 2015) at 259-287.

13 114957 Canada Ltée (Spraytech, Société d'arrosage) v. Hudson (Town), [2001] S.C.J. No. 42, [2001] 2 S.C.R. 241 (S.C.C.).

14 See, e.g., Municipal Affairs Act, R.S.O. 1990, c. M.46; Charter of Ville de Montréal, Métropole du Québec, CQLR, c. C-11.4.

15 Benoît Frate & David Robitaille, "Is law a lever or an obstacle to municipal autonomy?" in Policy Options (June 21, 2021), online: https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/june-2021/is-the-law-a-lever-or-an-obstacle-to-municipal-autonomy/.

16 See, generally, Benoît Frate & David Robitaille, "A Pipeline Story: The Evolving Autonomy of Canadian Municipalities" (2021) 34 J. L. & Soc. Pol'y 94. See also "Quebec proposes greater autonomy, grants metropolis status for Montreal", CBC News (December 8, 2016), online: cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/quebec-proposes-greater-autonomy-grantsmetropolis-status-for-montreal-1.3888329 https://doi.org/10.60082/0829-3929.1409

17 See Kristin R. Good, "Reconsidering the Constitutional Status of Municipalities: From Creatures of the Provinces to Provincial Constitutionalism", Centre of Excellence on the Canadian Constitution (February 4, 2021), online https://centre.irpp.org/research-studies/reconsidering-the-constitutional-status-of-municipalities-from-creatures-of-the-provinces-toprovincial-constitutionalism/ on options for provincial recognition of municipalities that go beyond statutes.

18 See, e.g., City of Toronto Act, 2006, S.O. 2006, c. 11, Sch. A.

19 City of Toronto Act, 2006, S.O. 2006, c. 11, Sch. A, s. 1(1).

20 City of Toronto Act, 2006, S.O. 2006, c. 11, Sch. A, s. 2(1), (2).

21 Ron Levi & Mariana Valverde, "Freedom of the City: Canadian Cities and the Quest for Governmental Status" (2006) 44 Osgoode Hall L.J. 409 at 421. https://doi.org/10.60082/2817-5069.1281

22 See, e.g., Municipal Act, 2001, S.O. 2001, c. 25, s. 2.

23 Ron Levi & Mariana Valverde, "Freedom of the City: Canadian Cities and the Quest for Governmental Status" (2006) 44 Osgoode Hall L.J. 409 at 454-455. https://doi.org/10.60082/2817-5069.1281

24 Planning Act, R.S.O. 1990, c. P.13.

25 Ontario Municipal Board Act, R.S.O. 1990, c. O.28 [repealed].

26 Municipal Conflict of Interest Act, R.S.O. 1990, c. M.50.

27 Municipal Elections Act, 1996, S.O. 1996, c. 32, Sch.

28 Residential Tenancies Act, 2006, S.O. 2006, c. 17.

29 Condominium Act, 1998, S.O. 1998, c. 19. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1246-7391(98)80096-1

30 Municipal Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act, R.S.O. 1990, c. M.56.

31 See, e.g., R. v. Greenbaum, [1993] S.C.J. No. 24, [1993] 1 S.C.R. 674 at 688-689 (S.C.C.); Shell Canada Products Ltd. v. Vancouver (City), [1994] S.C.J. No. 15, [1994] 1 S.C.R. 231 (S.C.C.); Nanaimo (City) v. Rascal Trucking Ltd., [2000] S.C.J. No. 14, 2000 SCC 13 (S.C.C.); 114957 Canada Ltée (Spraytech, Société d'arrosage) v. Hudson (Town), [2001] S.C.J. No. 42, [2001] 2 S.C.R. 241 (S.C.C.).

32 Stanley Makuch, Neil Craik & Signe B. Leisk, Canadian Municipal and Planning Law (Toronto: Thomson Carswell, 2004) at 81.

33 Croplife Canada v. Toronto (City), [2005] O.J. No. 1896, 75 O.R. (3d) 357 (Ont. C.A.), leave to appeal refused [2005] S.C.C.A. No. 329 (S.C.C.).

34 Alexandra Flynn, "Operative Subsidiary and Municipal Authority: The Case of Toronto's Ward Boundary Review" (2019) 16:1 Osgoode Hall L.J. 272.

35 See Benoît Frate & David Robitaille, "A Pipeline Story: The Evolving Autonomy of Canadian Municipalities" (2021) 34 J. L. & Soc. Pol'y 94 at 102. https://doi.org/10.60082/0829-3929.1409

36 Madger v. Ford, [2013] O.J. No. 299, 2013 ONSC 263 (Ont. S.C.J.), supp. Reasons [2013] O.J. No. 1489, 2013 ONSC 1842 (Ont. S.C.J.).

37 Wainfleet Wind Energy Inc. v. Wainfleet (Township), [2013] O.J. No. 1744, 2013 ONSC 2194 (Ont. S.C.J.).

38 Shell Canada Products Ltd. v. Vancouver (City), [1994] S.C.J. No. 15, [1994] 1 S.C.R. 231 (S.C.C.).

39 Horton v. Greater Sudbury (City), [2003] O.J. No. 3190 at para. 26, 66 O.R. (3d) 359 (Ont. S.C.J.).

40 Shell Canada Products Ltd. v. Vancouver (City), [1994] S.C.J. No. 15, [1994] 1 S.C.R. 231 at 244 (S.C.C.).

41 Nanaimo (City) v. Rascal Trucking Ltd., [2000] S.C.J. No. 14, 2000 SCC 13 (S.C.C.).

42 114957 Canada Ltée (Spraytech, Société d'arrosage) v. Hudson (Town), [2001] S.C.J. No. 42, [2001] 2 S.C.R. 241 (S.C.C.).

43 114957 Canada Ltée (Spraytech, Société d'arrosage) v. Hudson (Town), [2001] S.C.J. No. 42, [2001] 2 S.C.R. 241 (S.C.C.).

44 Ian M. Rogers, The Law of Canadian Municipal Corporations (Toronto: Carswell, 1971), quoted in 114957 Canada Ltée (Spraytech, Société d'arrosage) v. Hudson (Town), [2001] S.C.J. No. 42, [2001] 2 S.C.R. 241 at 258-259 (S.C.C.).

45 British Columbia Lottery Corp. v. Vancouver (City), [1999] B.C.J. No. 79, 1999 BCCA 18, 169 D.L.R. (4th) 141 at 147-148 (B.C.C.A.). See also Ontario (Attorney General) v. Mississauga (City), [1981] O.J. No. 3045, 124 D.L.R. (3d) 385 at 232 (Ont. C.A.).

46 114957 Canada Ltée (Spraytech, Société d'arrosage) v. Hudson (Town), [2001] S.C.J. No. 42, [2001] 2 S.C.R. 241 (S.C.C.).

47 Nanaimo (City) v. Rascal Trucking Ltd., [2000] S.C.J. No. 14 at para. 35, 2000 SCC 13 (S.C.C.).

48 United Taxi Drivers' Fellowship of Southern Alberta v. Calgary (City), [2004] S.C.J. No. 19, 2004 SCC 19 (S.C.C.), referenced in R. v. Latouche, [2010] A.J. No. 631 at para. 72, 2010 ABPC 166 (Alta. Prov. Ct.).

49 United Taxi Drivers' Fellowship of Southern Alberta v. Calgary (City), [2004] S.C.J. No. 19 at para. 6, 2004 SCC 19 (S.C.C.).

50 Croplife Canada v. Toronto (City), [2005] O.J. No. 1896, 75 O.R. (3d) 357 (Ont. C.A.), leave to appeal refused [2005] S.C.C.A. No. 329 (S.C.C.).

51 Galganov v. Russell (Township), [2012] O.J. No. 2677, 2012 ONCA 409 (Ont. C.A.), leave to appeal refused [2012] S.C.C.A. No. 369 (S.C.C.).

52 R. v. Guignard, [2002] S.C.J. No. 14 at para. 17, 2002 SCC 14 (S.C.C.). https://doi.org/10.1177/104747570201700305

53 Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) v. Vavilov, [2019] S.C.J. No. 65, 2019 SCC 65 (S.C.C.).

54 Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) v. Vavilov, [2019] S.C.J. No. 65, 2019 SCC 65 (S.C.C.).

55 Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) v. Vavilov, [2019] S.C.J. No. 65 at para. 137, 2019 SCC 65 (S.C.C.).

56 Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) v. Vavilov, [2019] S.C.J. No. 65 at para. 110, 2019 SCC 65 (S.C.C.).

57 Catalyst Paper v. North Cowichan (District), [2012] S.C.J. No. 2 at para. 19, 2012 SCC 2 (S.C.C.).

58 Community Assn. of New Yaletown v. Vancouver (City), [2015] B.C.J. No. 1005 at paras. 58-61, 2015 BCCA 227 (B.C.C.A.). In Community Assn. of New Yaletown v. Vancouver (City), the British Columbia Court of Appeal outlined three very different kinds of administrative decisions: legislative, where municipalities enact by-laws on a range of regulatory and policy matters; business, in the administration and management of municipal assets; and quasi-judicial in matters such as licensing and rezoning.

59 Community Assn. of New Yaletown v. Vancouver (City), [2015] B.C.J. No. 1005 at para. 62, 2015 BCCA 227 (B.C.C.A.).

60 Toronto (City) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [2021] S.C.J. No. 34, 2021 SCC 34 (S.C.C.) [hereinafter "Toronto v. Ontario"].

61 Municipal Elections Act, 1996, S.O. 1996, c. 32, s. 33(4). For details on the debates that led to the enactment of Bill 5, see Nathalie Des Rosiers, "Deference to Legislatures: The Case of the 2018 Ontario Better Local Government Act" (2021) 34 J. L.& Soc. Pol'y 39. https://doi.org/10.60082/0829-3929.1407

62 Toronto (City) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [2018] O.J. No. 4596 at para. 31, 2018 ONSC 5151 (Ont. S.C.J.).

63 S.O. 2018, c. 11.

64 Alexandra Flynn, "The legal case against Ford's assault on local democracy", Spacing Magazine (July 30, 2018), online: https://spacing.ca/toronto/2018/07/30/the-legal-caseagainst-fords-assault-on-local-democracy/.

65 Toronto (City) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [2018] O.J. No. 4596 at para. 10, 2018 ONSC 5151 (Ont. S.C.J.).

66 Toronto (City) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [2018] O.J. No. 4596 at para. 31, 2018 ONSC 5151 (Ont. S.C.J.).

67 Toronto (City) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [2018] O.J. No. 4596 at para. 51, 2018 ONSC 5151 (Ont. S.C.J.). Section 3 of the Charter guarantees Canadian citizens the democratic right to vote in a general, federal or provincial election, and the right to be eligible for membership in the House of Commons or of a provincial legislative assembly, subject to the requirements of s. 1 of the Charter.

68 Toronto (City) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [2018] O.J. No. 4742, 2018 ONCA 761 (Ont. C.A.).

69 Toronto (City) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [2019] O.J. No. 4741, 2019 ONCA 732 (Ont. C.A.).

70 Toronto (City) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [2019] O.J. No. 4741 at para. 6, 2019 ONCA 732 (Ont. C.A.).

71 Toronto (City) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [2019] O.J. No. 4741 at para. 76, 2019 ONCA 732 (Ont. C.A.).

72 Toronto (City) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [2019] O.J. No. 4741 at para. 76, 2019 ONCA 732 (Ont. C.A.).

73 Toronto (City) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [2019] O.J. No. 4741 at para. 136, 2019 ONCA 732 (Ont. C.A.).

74 Toronto (City) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [2021] S.C.J. No. 34, 2021 SCC 34 (S.C.C.).

75 Toronto (City) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [2021] S.C.J. No. 34 at paras. 27-28, 2021 SCC 34 (S.C.C.).

76 Toronto (City) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [2021] S.C.J. No. 34 at paras. 55-57, 2021 SCC 34 (S.C.C.).

77 Toronto (City) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [2021] S.C.J. No. 34 at para. 57, 2021 SCC 34 (S.C.C.).

78 Toronto (City) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [2021] S.C.J. No. 34 at para. 58, 2021 SCC 34 (S.C.C.).

79 Toronto (City) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [2021] S.C.J. No. 34 at para. 116, 2021 SCC 34 (S.C.C.).

80 Toronto (City) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [2021] S.C.J. No. 34 at para. 121, 2021 SCC 34 (S.C.C.).

81 See Supreme Court of Canada, Current and Former Judges (n.d.), online: https://www.scc-csc.ca/judges-juges/cfpju-jupp-eng.aspx .

82 Strong Mayors, Building Homes Act, 2022, S.O. 2022, c. 18 [hereinafter "Bill 3"].

83 Rob Ford & Doug Ford, Ford Nation: Two Brothers, One Vision - The True Story of the People's Mayor (Toronto: HarperCollins, 2016) at 85-86, quoted in Zack Taylor, "Strong(er) Mayors - What Difference Will They Make?" IMFG Forum Paper (2023), online: https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/127410/1/imfgforum_no13_strongermayors_zacktaylor_may_15_2023.pdf at 1.

84 Strong Mayors, Building Homes Act, 2022, S.O. 2022, c. 18, s. 2.

85 Strong Mayors, Building Homes Act, 2022, S.O. 2022, c. 18, s. 2.

86 Strong Mayors, Building Homes Act, 2022, S.O. 2022, c. 18, s. 2.

87 Better Municipal Governance Act, 2022, S.O. 2022, c. 24 [hereinafter "Bill 39"].

88 Minister of Municipal Affairs and Housing, "Strong Mayor Powers Expanded to Mayors in 26 Municipalities", Government of Ontario (June 16, 2023), online: https://news.ontario.ca/en/backgrounder/1003166/strong-mayor-powers-expanded-to-mayors-in-26-municipalities

89 See, e.g., Mariana Valverde & Alexandra Flynn, "Citizens are the real losers under Ontario's 'strong mayor' law", Toronto Star (December 12, 2022), online: https://www.thestar.com/opinion/contributors/citizens-are-the-real-losers-under-ontario-s-strong-mayorlaw/article_a6293252-1d29-5f74-a7e2-0978b5cf1b90.html .

90 Edward Keenan, "'Good luck, Toronto': Our new minority-rule mayor law leaves global experts baffled", Toronto Star (December 8, 2022), online: https://www.thestar.com/opinion/star-columnists/2022/12/08/good-luck-toronto-our-new-minority-rule-mayor-lawleaves-global-experts-baffled.html .

91 Progress Toronto, "Letter from 5 Former Mayors of Toronto to Mayor John Tory", online: https://www.progresstoronto.ca/former-mayors-letter-to-tory .

92 Association of Municipalities of Ontario, "Bill 39, The Better Municipal Governance Act, 2022: AMO's Remarks to the Standing Committee on Heritage, Infrastructure and Cultural Policy" (December 1, 2022), online: https://www.amo.on.ca/sites/default/files/assets/DOCUMENTS/Bill%2039/AMO's%20Remarks%20to%20the%20Standing%20Committee%20on%20Heritage,%20Infrastructure%20and%20Cultural%20Policy%20on%20Bill%2039%202022-12-01%20RPT.pdf .

93 The agreement referenced in s. 1 of the City of Toronto Act, 2006, S.O. 2006, c. 11, is framed as a consultation and cooperation agreement signed by officials in both governments setting out the details of how they will engage, including "Respect for each other's jurisdiction and authority" (Agreement on Cooperation and Consultation between the City of Toronto and the Province of Ontario, online: https://www.ontario.ca/page/agreementcooperation-and-consultation-between-city-toronto-and-province-ontario ). The Province has entered into a similar agreement with the Association of Municipalities of Ontario (Association of Municipalities of Ontario: Memorandum of understanding, online: https://www.ontario.ca/page/association-municipalities-ontario-memorandum-understanding ). The agreements were in place at the time that the provincial actions described in this paper tookplace.

94 Municipal Act, 2001, S.O. 2001, c. 25, s. 3.

95 Zack Taylor & Martin Horak, "Strong mayor powers in Ontario are a gross violation of democratic principles", Policy Options (December 16, 2022), online: https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/december-2022/strong-mayor-powers-in-ontario-are-a-gross-violation-ofdemocratic-principles/ .

96 Mark McAllister & Meredith Bond, "New faces bringing diversity to Toronto CityCouncil", CityNews (October 25, 2022), online: https://toronto.citynews.ca/2022/10/25/newfaces-toronto-city-council/

97 Mark McAllister & Meredith Bond, "New faces bringing diversity to Toronto City Council", CityNews (October 25, 2022), online: https://toronto.citynews.ca/2022/10/25/newfaces-toronto-city-council/ .

98 Provincial Priorities, O. Reg. 582/22, City of Toronto Act, 2006 and Provincial Priorities, O. Reg. 580/22, under the Municipal Act, 2001 came into force on December 20, 2022; see also Steve Clark, Minister of Municipal Affairs and Housing, "More Homes, Built Faster: Ontario's Housing Supply Action Plan 2022-2023", online: https://www.ontario.ca/page/more-homes-built-faster ; and John Mascarin & Jennifer Bilas, "Strong Mayors -Shifting the Municipal Governance Model", Aird Berlis (September 12, 2022), online: https://www.airdberlis.com/insights/publications/publication/strong-mayors-shifting-themunicipal-governance-model .

99 Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, "Canada's Housing Supply Shortage: Restoring affordability by 2030" (June 23, 2022), online: https://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/blog/2022/canadas-housing-supply-shortage-restoring-affordability-2030 .

100 This does not include areas for which data is missing, including homeless and hidden populations, students and those who are living with others due to financial constraints, but would prefer not to.

101 Zack Taylor & Martin Horak, "Strong mayor powers in Ontario are a gross violation of democratic principles", Policy Options (December 16, 2022), online: https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/december-2022/strong-mayor-powers-in-ontario-are-a-gross-violation-ofdemocratic-principles/ .

102 Social housing units in British Columbia, for example, are owned and operated by a provincial crown corporation known as BC Housing. Similar agencies exist in Saskatchewan (Saskatchewan Housing Corporation), Nova Scotia (Housing Nova Scotia), and Manitoba (Manitoba Housing). Toronto is the outlier - responsibility for social housing was downloaded to them by Ontario in the mid-1990s as part of Local Services Realignment.

103 Zack Taylor & Martin Horak, "Strong mayor powers in Ontario are a gross violation of democratic principles", Policy Options (December 16, 2022), online: https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/december-2022/strong-mayor-powers-in-ontario-are-a-gross-violation-ofdemocratic-principles/ .

104 Preamble to the Constitution Act, 1867 (U.K.), 30 & 31 Vict., c. 3.

105 Reference re Secession of Quebec, [1998] S.C.J. No. 61 at para. 44, [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217 (S.C.C.).

106 Right Honourable Beverley McLachlin, P.C., Chief Justice of Canada, "Unwritten Constitutional Principles: What Is Going On?", Remarks Given at the 2005 Lord Cooke Lecture in Wellington, New Zealand (2005), online: https://www.scc-csc.ca/judges-juges/spe-dis/bm-2005-12-01-eng.aspx .

107 See, e.g., A.V. Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, 10th ed. (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1985).

108 Reference re Secession of Quebec, [1998] S.C.J. No. 61, [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217 (S.C.C.).

109 Reference re Secession of Quebec, [1998] S.C.J. No. 61, [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217 (S.C.C.).

110 Reference re Secession of Quebec, [1998] S.C.J. No. 61 at para. 40, [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217 (S.C.C.). For a detailed review of the "bundle of democratic rights", see also Yasmin Dawood, "Democracy and the Right to Vote: Rethinking Democratic Rights under the Charter" (2013) 51:1 Osgoode Hall L.J. 251. https://doi.org/10.60082/2817-5069.2609

111 Reference re Secession of Quebec, [1998] S.C.J. No. 61 at para. 39, [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217 (S.C.C.).

112 Reference re Secession of Quebec, [1998] S.C.J. No. 61 at para. 39, [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217 (S.C.C.).

113 Jamie Cameron & Bailey Fox, "Toronto's 2018 Municipal Election, Rights of Democratic Participation, and Section 2 (b) of the Charter" (2021) 30:1 Constitutional Forum constitutionnel 1, online: https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/constitutional_forum/index.php/constitutional_forum/article/view/29411/21408 at 3. https://doi.org/10.21991/cf29432

114 Reference re Secession of Quebec, [1998] S.C.J. No. 61 at para. 44, [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217 (S.C.C.).

115 Reference re Secession of Quebec, [1998] S.C.J. No. 61 at para. 63, [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217 (S.C.C.).

116 R. v. Oakes, [1986] S.C.J. No. 7 at para. 64, [1986] 1 S.C.R. 103 (S.C.C.).

117 Reference re Secession of Quebec, [1998] S.C.J. No. 61 at para. 65, [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217 (S.C.C.).

118 Reference re Secession of Quebec, [1998] S.C.J. No. 61 at para. 66, [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217 (S.C.C.).

119 Toronto v. Ontario at para. 44.

120 Toronto v. Ontario at para. 45.

121 Toronto v. Ontario at para. 59.

122 Toronto v. Ontario at para. 53.

123 Toronto v. Ontario at para. 51. Note the argument that courts in the United Kingdom can only issue a declaration of incompatibility between primary legislation and the European Convention on Human Rights, 213 U.N.T.S. 221; Human Rights Act 1998 (U.K.), 1998, c. 42, s. 4.

124 Toronto v. Ontario at para. 116.

125 Reference re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 (S.C.C.).

126 Canadian Western Bank v. Alberta, [2007] S.C.J. No. 22, 2007 SCC 22 (S.C.C.) [hereinafter "CWB"].

127 Canadian Western Bank v. Alberta, [2007] S.C.J. No. 22 at paras. 22-23, 2007 SCC 22 (S.C.C.).

128 Toronto (City) v. Goldlist Properties Inc., [2002] O.J. No. 601 at para. 35, 58 O.R. (3d) 232 (Ont. Div. Ct.).

129 Reference re British North America Act, 1867, s. 24, [1929] J.C.J. No. 2, [1930] A.C. 124 at 136 (P.C.).

130 Reference re British North America Act, 1867, s. 24, [1929] J.C.J. No. 2, [1930] A.C. 124 at 136 (P.C.).

131 Reference re British North America Act, 1867, s. 24, [1929] J.C.J. No. 2, [1930] A.C. 124 at 136 (P.C.).

132 See, e.g., Canadian Western Bank v. Alberta, [2007] S.C.J. No. 22, 2007 SCC 22 (S.C.C.); Multiple Access Ltd. v. McCutcheon, [1982] S.C.J. No. 66, [1982] 2 S.C.R. 161 (S.C.C.); Law Society of British Columbia v. Mangat, [2001] S.C.J. No. 66, 2001 SCC 67 (S.C.C.); OPSEU v. Ontario (Attorney General), [1987] S.C.J. No. 48, [1987] 2 S.C.R. 2 (S.C.C.).

133 Toronto v. Ontario at para. 52.

134 Toronto v. Ontario at para. 170. See also Reference re Secession of Quebec, [1998] S.C.J. No. 61, [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217 at 845 (S.C.C.).

135 Toronto v. Ontario.

136 Toronto v. Ontario.

137 Toronto v. Ontario at para. 68.

138 Toronto v. Ontario at para. 68.

139 Zack Taylor, "Strong(er) Mayors - What Difference Will They Make?" IMFG Forum Paper (2023), online: https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/127410/1/imfgforum_ no13_strongermayors_zacktaylor_may_15_2023.pdf at 6. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijl.v15i6.21528

140 Reference re Secession of Quebec, [1998] S.C.J. No. 61 at para. 70, [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217 (S.C.C.).

141 Reference re Secession of Quebec, [1998] S.C.J. No. 61 at para. 71, [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217 (S.C.C.), referencing Reference re Manitoba Language Rights, [1985] S.C.J. No. 36, [1985] 1 S.C.R. 721 at 747-752 (S.C.C.).

142 Reference re Secession of Quebec, [1998] S.C.J. No. 61 at para. 67, [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217 (S.C.C.).

143 Vanessa A. MacDonnell, "Rethinking the Invisible Constitution: How Unwritten Constitutional Principles Shape Political Decision-Making" (2019) 65:2 McGill L.J. 175. https://doi.org/10.7202/1075515ar

144 Vanessa A. MacDonnell, "Rethinking the Invisible Constitution: How Unwritten Constitutional Principles Shape Political Decision-Making" (2019) 65:2 McGill L.J. 175.

https://doi.org/10.7202/1075515ar

145 Vanessa A. MacDonnell, "Rethinking the Invisible Constitution: How Unwritten Constitutional Principles Shape Political Decision-Making" (2019) 65:2 McGill L.J. 175. https://doi.org/10.7202/1075515ar

146 Michael Pal, "The Unwritten Principle of Democracy" (2019) 65:2 McGill L.J. 269. https://doi.org/10.7202/1075517ar

147 Michael Pal, "The Unwritten Principle of Democracy" (2019) 65:2 McGill L.J. 269. https://doi.org/10.7202/1075517ar

148 Michael Pal, "The Unwritten Principle of Democracy" (2019) 65:2 McGill L.J. 269. https://doi.org/10.7202/1075517ar

149 Vanessa A. MacDonnell, "Rethinking the Invisible Constitution: How Unwritten Constitutional Principles Shape Political Decision-Making" (2019) 65:2 McGill L.J. 175. https://doi.org/10.7202/1075515ar

150 Jean Leclair, "Canada's Unfathomable Unwritten Constitutional Principles" (2002) 27:2 Queen's L.J. 389 at 431.

151 City Council, CC2.3 - Legislative Changes to City Governance - Bill 3 and Bill 39 (December 14, 2022), online: https://secure.toronto.ca/council/agenda-item.do?item=2023.CC2.3 .

152 Canadian Press, "Housing, property taxes, strong mayor powers: Olivia Chow weighs in as Toronto's mayor-elect", CBC News (June 27, 2023), online: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/olivia-chow-mayor-elect-metro-morning-1.6889658 .

153 Ted Raymond, "Sutcliffe vowing not to use expanded 'strong mayor' powers", CTV News (November 16, 2022), online: https://ottawa.ctvnews.ca/sutcliffe-vowing-not-to-useexpanded-strong-mayor-powers-1.6155935; Brandon Maher, "Ford weighs in on Regionalmayors turning down strong mayor powers", CityNews (June 27, 2023), online: https://kitchener.citynews.ca/2023/06/27/ford-weighs-in-on-regional-mayors-turning-down-strongmayor-powers/ .

154 See, e.g., Elliott Cappell et al., "The Municipal Role in Climate Policy" (Toronto: Institute on Municipal Finance & Governance, 2022), online: https://hdl.handle.net/1807/124222 . See the Institute of Municipal Finance & Governance's 2022-2023 Who Does What series for other examples of municipal policy leadership.

155 See, e.g., the Federal Gas Tax Fund, a now-permanent federal infrastructure funding program that gives funding directly to municipalities, including $152 million per year to the City of Toronto (Government of Canada, "The Federal Gas Tax Fund: Permanent and Predictable Funding for Municipalities" (April 12, 2017), online: http://www.infrastructure.gc.ca/plan/gtf-fte-eng.html .

156 Ron Levi & Mariana Valverde, "Freedom of the City: Canadian Cities and the Quest for Governmental Status" (2006) 44 Osgoode Hall L.J. 409. https://doi.org/10.60082/2817-5069.1281

157 Constitution Act, 1867, s. 92(8).

158 See, e.g., City of Toronto Act, 2006, S.O. 2006, c. 11, Sch. A.

159 Alexandra Flynn, "Operative Subsidiary and Municipal Authority: The Case of Toronto's Ward Boundary Review" (2019) 16:1 Osgoode Hall L.J. 272.