A Professional Comedian’s Fundamental Right to Publicly Bully a Child Because of His Disability? Scrutinizing Ward v. Quebec Human Rights Commission Through a Disability Lens

Authors

David Lepofsky, Visiting Professor of Disability Rights and Legal Education, Osgoode Hall Law School of York University

Abstract

Ward, a well-known Quebec comedian, thought it would be funny to publicly ridicule and humiliate an adolescent with a disability known in Quebec for his singing. Quebec’s Human Rights Tribunal found that Ward violated his target’s statutory right to be free from disability discrimination in relation to the right to dignity, guaranteed by section 4 of the Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms. A five-justice majority of a sharply split Supreme Court of Canada overturned the award, leaving Ward free to repeat his bullying. Ward’s Supreme Court majority extended problematic legal protection to extreme, widely disseminated public taunting and bullying of a child with a disability. It treated Ward, a professional comedian, as deserving extra legal protection while engaging in comedy. It treated his young victim as a less protected target because he was a “public figure.” This paper explores major errors in the majority decision beyond those in the dissent. Scrutinized through a disability lens (focusing on its impact on the equality rights of people with disabilities), the Ward majority decision reflects a stunning lack of understanding of, and devaluation of, equality for people with disabilities. It rests on bogus, unsupported judge-made psychology. It employs a harmful hierarchical approach to equality rights which deprioritizes disability equality. Some of Ward’s errors are rooted in problematic principles that the Court earlier established. Others are the Ward majority’s own innovations.

Citation Information

Lepofsky, David. "A Professional Comedian’s Fundamental Right to Publicly Bully a Child Because of His Disability? Scrutinizing Ward v. Quebec Human Rights Commission Through a Disability Lens." The Supreme Court Law Review: Osgoode’s Annual Constitutional Cases Conference 108. (2023).
DOI: https://doi.org/10.60082/2563-8505.1439
https://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/sclr/vol108/iss1/8

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 4.0 License.

References

1 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at paras 9, 12 (S.C.C.).

2 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at paras. 123, 125, 173 (S.C.C.).

3 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at paras. 124, 172 (S.C.C.).

4 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at para. 14 (S.C.C.).

5 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at paras. 117, 125, 177 (S.C.C.).

6 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at para. 126 (S.C.C.).

7 See, for example, K. Bills, "Helping children with disabilities combat negative socio-emotional outcomes caused by bullying through extracurricular activities" (2020) 30:5 Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment at 573-574. See also the Ward dissent's commentary, Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at para 195 (S.C.C.).

https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2020.1718052

8 Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms, CQLR, c. C-12 [hereinafter "Quebec Charter"]. See the Quebec Human Rights Tribunal decision, Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse (Gabriel et autres) v. Ward, [2016] Q.H.R.T.J. no 18, 35 C.C.L.T. (4th) 258, 84 C.H.R.R. D/155, (Que. Human Rights Trib.). For reference, see also the Quebec Charter, ss. 3, 4 and 10. Section 3 of the Quebec Charter reads "[e]very person is the possessor of the fundamental freedoms, including freedom of conscience, freedom of religion, freedom of opinion, freedom of expression, freedom of peaceful assembly and freedom of association." Section 4 reads "[e]very person has a right to the safeguard of his dignity, honour and reputation." Section 10 reads Every person has a right to full and equal recognition and exercise of his human rights and freedoms, without distinction, exclusion or preference based on race, colour, sex, gender identity or expression, pregnancy, sexual orientation, civil status, age except as provided by law, religion, political convictions, language, ethnic or national origin, social condition, a handicap or the use of any means to palliate a handicap. Discrimination exists where such a distinction, exclusion or preference has the effect of nullifying or impairing such right.

9 Ward c. Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse (Gabriel et autres), [2019] J.Q. no 10380, 2019 QCCA 2042 (Que. C.A.).

10 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 (S.C.C.).

11 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43 at paras. 115-224, 2021 SCC 43 (S.C.C.). On this issue, the majority and dissent, which is composed of Abella, Karakatsanis, Martin and Kasirer JJ., take somewhat different approaches.

12 Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (U.K.), 1982, c. 11 [hereinafter "Charter"].

13 Irwin Toy Ltd. v. Québec (Attorney General), [1989] S.C.J. No. 36, [1989] 1 S.C.R. 927 (S.C.C.).

14 Reference re ss. 193 and 195.1(1)(c) of the Criminal Code (Man.), [1990] S.C.J. No. 52, [1990] 1 S.C.R. 1123 at para. 5 (S.C.C.).

15 I have elsewhere argued that it is erroneous for courts, assessing freedom of expression claims under s. 2(b) of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (U.K.), 1982, c. 11, to try to evaluate a speaker's specific message, in order to conclude how closely linked it is to s. 2(b)'s purposes or values. See M.D. Lepofsky, "The Supreme Court's Approach to Freedom of Expression - Irwin Toy v. Quebec (Attorney General) - And the Illusion of Section 2(b) Liberalism" (1993) 3:1 National Journal of Constitutional Law at 96. I present this article's analysis on the assumption that despite my earlier objections, courts will continue to undertake that analysis.

16 A sampling of explorations of the meaning and context of disability rights can be found in Lepofsky, M. D., "Federal Court of Appeal De-Rails Equality Rights for Persons with Disabilities - Via Rail v. Canadian Transportation Agency and the Important Duty Not to Create New Barriers to Accessibility" (2006) 18 National Journal of Constitutional Law, 169-203; D. Lepofsky, "A Report Card on the Charter's Guarantee of Equality to Persons with Disabilities after 10 Years - What Progress? What Prospects?" (1997) 7:3 National Journal of Constitutional Law; D. Lepofsky, "People with Disabilities Need Lawyers Too! A Ready-To-Use Plan for Law Schools to Educate Law Students to Effectively Serve the Legal Needs of Clients with Disabilities, As Well As Clients Without Disabilities" (2022) Windsor Yearbook on Access to Justice, especially at 4-15; M.D. Lepofsky, "The Duty to Accommodate: A Purposive Approach" (1993) 1 Can. Lab. L.J. 1, especially at 5-10; P. Blanck & E. Flynn, Routledge Handbook of Disability Law and Human Rights (Abingdon-on-Thames, Oxon: Routledge, 2020); L. Jacobs, Law and Disability in Canada: Cases and Materials (LexisNexis Canada, 2021); T. Shakespeare, Disability Rights and Wrongs Revisited, 2d ed. (Abingdon-on-Thames, Oxon: Routledge, 2013), especially at 12-21; D. Pothier, D. Devlin & R. Devlin, Critical Disability Theory: Essays in Philosophy, Politics, Policy and Law" (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2014), especially at 47-59; A. Levesque & R. Malhotra, "The Dawning of the Social Model? Applying a Disability Lens to Recent Developments in the Law of Negligence" (2019) 13:1 McGill J.L. & Health 1, at 11-14; R. Malhotra, "Has the Charter Made a Difference for People with Disabilities?: Reflections and Strategies for the 21st Century" (2012) 58:10 S.C.L.R. 273, especially at 273-277; Eldridge v. British Columbia (Attorney General), [1997] S.C.J. No. 86, [1997] 3 S.C.R. 624 at paras. 56-58 (S.C.C.); Moore v. British Columbia (Education), [2012] S.C.J. No. 61, 2012 SCC 6 at paras. 26-32 (S.C.C).

17 See, for example, Canada (Combines Investigation Acts, Director of Investigation and Research) v. Southam Inc., [1984] S.C.J. No. 36, [1984] 2 S.C.R. 145 at 155 (S.C.C.); R. v. Big M Drug Mart Ltd., [1985] S.C.J. No. 17, [1985] 1 S.C.R. 295 at paras. 116-118, 123 (S.C.C.); Irwin Toy Ltd. v. Québec (Attorney General), [1989] S.C.J. No. 36, [1989] 1 S.C.R. 927 at paras. 52-53 (S.C.C.); Ford v. Quebec (Attorney General), [1988] S.C.J. No. 88, [1988] 2 S.C.R. 712 at paras. 56-57 (S.C.C.); R. v. Stillman, [2019] S.C.J. No. 40, 2019 SCC 40 at para. 21 (S.C.C.).

18 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at paras. 59-60 (S.C.C.).

19 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at paras. 48, 56-58 (S.C.C.).

20 Canada (Combines Investigation Acts, Director of Investigation and Research) v. Southam Inc., [1984] S.C.J. No. 36, [1984] 2 S.C.R. 145 at 156-157 (S.C.C.).

21 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at para. 91 (S.C.C.).

22 President Obama was the target of racist speech during and after his time serving as U.S. President. In presenting this argument, I don't assume that the law has served effectively to vanquish racism, nor do I seek to measure the relative severity of racist speech on the one hand and speech that vilified Jérémy on the other.

23 Stewart v. Elk Valley Coal Corp., [2017] S.C.J. No. 30, [2017] 1 S.C.R. 591 at paras. 24, 46 (S.C.C.); Moore v. British Columbia (Education), [2012] S.C.J. No. 61, 2012 SCC 61 at para. 33 (S.C.C.); L. (J.) (Litigation guardian of) v. Empower Simcoe, [2021] O.H.R.T.D. No. 217, 2021 HRTO 222 at paras. 57-58, 61, 76-77 (Ont. H.R.T.).

24 Cases which exemplify this include: Abdolalipour v. Allied Chemical Canada Ltd., [1996] O.H.R.B.I.D. No. 31 at paras. 188, 205-206 (Ont. H.R.T.); Hartling v. Timmins (City) Commissioners of Police (1981), 2 CHRR D/487 (Ont. Bd. Inq.) at paras. 159-162; Chidley v. Clowe's Ambulance Service, [2010] N.L.H.R.B.I.D. No. 2 at paras. 68-73 (N.B. Human Rights Comm. Bd.).

25 Law Society British Columbia v. Andrews, [1989] S.C.J. No. 6, [1989] 1 S.C.R. 143 at para. 37 (S.C.C.); Quebec (Attorney General) v. Alliance du personnel professionnel et technique de la santé et des services sociaux, [2018] S.C.J. No. 17, 2018 SCC 17 at paras. 28, 32, 76 (S.C.C.); Vriend v. Alberta, [1998] S.C.J. No. 29 at para. 93, [1998] 1 S.C.R. 493 (S.C.C.).

26 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at para. 30 (S.C.C.).

27 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at para. 100 (S.C.C.).

28 For example, Attaran v. Assn. of Professors of the University of Ottawa, [2021] O.H.R.T.D. No. 1025, 2021 HRTO 980 at paras. 92, 101 (Ont. H.R.T.); Insang v. 2249191 (c.o.b. Innovative Content Solutions Inc.), [2017] O.H.R.T.D. No. 205, 2017 HRTO 208 at paras. 50 53, 59, 61 (Ont. H.R.T.); Devaney v. ZRV Holdings Ltd., [2012] O.H.R.T.D. No. 1571, 2012 HRTO 1590 at paras. 214-219 (Ont. H.R.T.).

29 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at paras. 88-90 (S.C.C.) [citations omitted].

30 Similarly questionable judge-made psychology is found in Saskatchewan (Human Rights Commission) v. Whatcott, [2013] S.C.J. No. 11, [2013] 1 S.C.R. 467 at paras. 87-95 (S.C.C.), holding that ridicule based on a ground protected by a human rights code is only constitutionally actionable where it produces hatred. Hatred is not the only devastating and dehumanizing consequence that severe ridicule of one's disability can produce, as this case exemplifies. Of course, the Ward Court was not asked to rule on the constitutionality of the Quebec Charter, as is further addressed below.

31 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43 at para. 98, 2021 SCC 43 (S.C.C.).

32 New York Times v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. 254 (1964), No. 39, (U.S.S.C.).

33 See Hill v. Church of Scientology of Toronto, [1995] S.C.J. No. 64, [1995] 2 S.C.R. 1130 at para. 137 (S.C.C.); Grant v. Torstar Corp., [2009] S.C.J. No. 61 at paras. 45-46, 2009 SCC 61 (S.C.C.).

34 See Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at paras. 92-102 (S.C.C.); M. v. H., [1999] S.C.J. No. 23, [1999] 2 S.C.R. 3 at paras. 48, 53, 62 (S.C.C.); Egan v. Canada, [1995] S.C.J. No. 43, [1995] 2 S.C.R. 513 at paras. 8-9 (S.C.C.); Miron v. Trudel, [1995] S.C.J. No. 44, [1995] 2 S.C.R. 418 at paras. 12-14 (S.C.C.); Law v. Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration), [1999] S.C.J. No. 12, [1999] 1 S.C.R. 497 at paras. 26-28, 39 (S.C.C.); Law Society British Columbia v. Andrews, [1989] S.C.J. No. 6, [1989] 1 S.C.R. 143 at paras. 16, 19, 28, 30 (S.C.C.); R. v. Turpin, [1989] S.C.J. No. 47, [1989] 1 S.C.R. 1296 at paras. 49-50, 55 (S.C.C.).

35 Lepofsky v. Toronto Transit Commission, [2005] O.H.R.T.D. No. 36, 2005 HRTO 36 (Ont. H.R.T.); Lepofsky v. Toronto Transit Commission, [2007] O.H.R.T.D. No. 23, 2007 HRTO 23 (Ont. H.R.T.).

36 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43 at para. 30, 2021 SCC 43 (S.C.C.).

https://doi.org/10.1149/2.F11211IF

37 Reference re Motor Vehicle Act (British Columbia) s. 94(2), [1985] S.C.J. No. 73, [1985] 2 S.C.R. 486 at para. 1 (S.C.C.).

38 For instance, see R. v. Hess; R. v. Nguyen, [1990] S.C.J. No. 91, [1990] 2 S.C.R. 906 at paras. 8-10, 69 (S.C.C.); R. v. Maybin, [2012] S.C.J. No. 24, [2012] 2 S.C.R. 30 at para. 16 (S.C.C.); R. v. Bernard, [1988] S.C.J. No. 96, [1988] 2 S.C.R. 833 at paras. 78, 94 (S.C.C.).

39 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at paras. 48-51 (S.C.C.).

40 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at paras. 35, 40 (S.C.C.). The majority drew on the earlier cases of Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse) v. Bombardier Inc. (Bombardier Aerospace Training Center), [2015] S.C.J. No. 39, [2015] 2 S.C.R. 789 at para. 54 (S.C.C.); Devine v. Québec (Attorney General), [1988] S.C.J. No. 89, [1988] 2 S.C.R. 790 at para. 30 (S.C.C.).

41 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at para. 35 (S.C.C.) [citations omitted].

42 Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (UK), 1982, c. 11, s. 15.

43 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at para. 43 (S.C.C.).

44 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at para. 84 (S.C.C.).

45 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at paras. 52-54 (S.C.C.).

46 The Supreme Court of Canada has identified a close nexus between equality and dignity, see, for example, Miron v. Trudel, [1995] S.C.J. No. 44, [1995] 2 S.C.R. 418 at paras. 51, 67, and 76 (S.C.C.); Law v. Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration), [1999] S.C.J. No. 12, [1999] 1 S.C.R. 497 at paras. 47-52, 70, 72 (S.C.C.).

47 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at para. 53 (S.C.C.).

48 Edmonton Journal v. Alberta (Attorney General), [1989] S.C.J. No. 124, [1989] 2 S.C.R. 1326 at paras. 51-52 (S.C.C.), per Wilson J.; R. v. Keegstra, [1990] S.C.J. No. 131, [1990] 3 S.C.R. 697 at paras. 40, 46, 83 (S.C.C.), per Dickson C.J.C.; Rocket v. Royal College of Dental Surgeons of Ontario, [1990] S.C.J. No. 65, [1990] 2 S.C.R. 232 at paras. 15, 28 (S.C.C.); Committee for the Commonwealth of Canada v. Canada, [1991] S.C.J. No. 3, [1991] 1 S.C.R. 139 at para. 120 (S.C.C.), per L'Heureux-Dubé J.; Quebec (Attorney General) v. 9147-0732 Québec inc., [2020] S.C.J. No. 32, 2020 SCC 32 at para. 7 (S.C.C.).

49 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at para. 99 (S.C.C.).

50 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at para. 57 (S.C.C.). https://doi.org/10.1002/inpr.13

51 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at paras. 117, 125, 177 (S.C.C.).

https://doi.org/10.13110/discourse.43.1.0177

52 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at para. 57 (S.C.C.). https://doi.org/10.1002/inpr.13

53 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at para. 58 (S.C.C.). https://doi.org/10.5771/2747-6073-2021-2-43

54 See Tétreault-Gadoury v. Canada (Employment and Immigration Commission), [1991] S.C.J. No. 41, [1991] 2 S.C.R. 22 at para. 43 (S.C.C.); Rodriguez v. British Columbia (Attorney General), [1993] S.C.J. No. 94, [1993] 3 S.C.R. 519 at paras. 46-47 (S.C.C.); R. v. Seaboyer; R. v. Gayme, [1991] S.C.J. No. 62, [1991] 2 S.C.R. 577 at para. 20 (S.C.C.).

55 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at para. 58 (S.C.C.).

56 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at para. 57 (S.C.C.).

57 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at para. 58 (S.C.C.). https://doi.org/10.5771/2747-6073-2021-2-43

58 Dagenais v. Canadian Broadcasting Corp., [1994] S.C.J. No. 104, [1994] 3 S.C.R. 835 (S.C.C.) [hereinafter "Dagenais"].

59 Dagenais v. Canadian Broadcasting Corp., [1994] S.C.J. No. 104, [1994] 3 S.C.R. 835 at para. 72 (S.C.C.).

60 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at para. 46 (S.C.C.).

61 Dagenais v. Canadian Broadcasting Corp., [1994] S.C.J. No. 104, [1994] 3 S.C.R. 835 (S.C.C.).

62 R. v. Keegstra, [1990] S.C.J. No. 131, [1990] 3 S.C.R. 697 at paras. 80, 114 (S.C.C.); Canada (Human Rights Commission) v. Taylor, [1990] S.C.J. No. 129, [1990] 3 S.C.R. 892 at paras. 36, 45, 60 (S.C.C); Saskatchewan (Human Rights Commission) v. Whatcott, [2013] S.C.J. No. 11, [2013] 1 S.C.R. 467 at paras. 47-48, 128-135, 151 (S.C.C.).

63 R. v. Butler, [1992] S.C.J. No. 15, [1992] 1 S.C.R. 452 at paras. 88, 103-108 (S.C.C.); Little Sisters Book and Art Emporium v. Canada (Minister of Justice), [2000] S.C.J. No. 66, [2000] 2 S.C.R. 1120 at paras. 58, 67-68, 148, 152 (S.C.C.); R. v. Sharpe, [2001] S.C.J. No. 3, [2001] 1 S.C.R. 45 at paras. 85, 88-89, 94 (S.C.C.).

64 See the 1980 proposed Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, Part I of The Canadian Constitution 1980: Proposed Resolution respecting the Constitution of Canada, 1980, s. 15(1).

65 See David Lepofsky's online lecture, "Fight to Amend Canadian Charter of Rights to Protect Disability Equality", Osgoode Hall Law School (January 22, 2014), online: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XrYzAAKXOrc&list=PLDGgB77j2ZYrl_rtpe32nSjOXfrDAGvnn&feature=share&index=1.

66 Canada, Parliament, Minutes of Proceedings and Evidence of the Special Joint Committee of the Senate and of the House of Commons on the Constitution of Canada, 32nd Parl., 1st Sess., No. 9 (November 20, 1980) at 127-129, 146-147, 151.

67 Eaton v. Brant County Board of Education, [1996] S.C.J. No. 98, [1997] 1 S.C.R. 241 (S.C.C.).

68 Eaton v. Brant County Board of Education, [1996] S.C.J. No. 98, [1997] 1 S.C.R. 241 at para. 69 (S.C.C.).

69 Eldridge v. British Columbia (Attorney General), [1997] S.C.J. No. 86, [1997] 3 S.C.R. 624 (S.C.C.).

70 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43, 2021 SCC 43 at paras. 117-177 (S.C.C.).

71 Ward v. Quebec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse), [2021] S.C.J. No. 43 at paras. 4-5, 2021 SCC 43 (S.C.C.).