Abstract
In References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, the Supreme Court of Canada addressed whether Parliament had the legislative competency to set and enforce minimum national standards for greenhouse gas emissions pricing. The Court held that it did, applying the national concern doctrine to establish that the Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act comes under Parliament’s “Peace, Order, and good Government” power. Below, I explore three aspects of the majority’s judgment that are likely to reappear in future division of powers cases: (1) its account of national concern doctrine’s judicial development; (2) its application of the validity test’s classification stage; and (3) its suggested operation of the double aspect doctrine.
Citation Information
Stewart, Fenner L..
"POGG Post References Re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act GGPPA."
The Supreme Court Law Review: Osgoode’s Annual Constitutional Cases Conference
108.
(2023).
DOI: https://doi.org/10.60082/2563-8505.1433
https://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/sclr/vol108/iss1/2
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 4.0 License.
References
1 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 (S.C.C.) [hereinafter "References re GGPPA"].
2 Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, S.C. 2018, c. 12, s. 186 [hereinafter "GGPPA"].
3 Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, S.C. 2018, c. 12, s. 186, ss. 166, 168, 189, 192.
4 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at para. 2 (S.C.C.).
5 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at para. 2 (S.C.C.).
6 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at paras. 13, 24 (S.C.C.). See also, Nicholas Ettinger, "The Importance of Canada's Climate Policy Network in View of the Escalating Climate Crisis and Backsliding International Policy" in Fenner Stewart & Janis Sarra, eds., Connecting Canada's Climate Policy Network (Vancouver: Canadian Climate Law Initiative, 2023) (Forthcoming).
7 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at paras. 171, 182, 207, 211 (S.C.C.).
8 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at para. 207 (S.C.C.).
9 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at para. 171 (S.C.C.).
10 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at paras. 141, 171 (S.C.C.).
11 The Constitution Act, 1867 (U.K.), 30 & 31 Vict., c. 3, s. 91.
12 Peter Hogg & Wade Wright, Constitutional Law of Canada, 5th ed., looseleaf (Toronto: Carswell, 2007) at 17-13.
13 The Constitution Act, 1867 (U.K.), 30 & 31 Vict., c. 3, s. 91.
14 See, for example, Royal Proclamation 1763 (G.B.), 3 Geo. 3 Quebec Act, 1774 (G.B.), 14 Geo. 3, c. 83 An Act to Make Temporary Provision for the Government of Lower Canada (U.K.), 1838, 1 & 2 Vict., c. 9 An Act to provide for the Government of British Columbia (U.K.), 1858, 21 & 22 Vict., c. 99 Colonial Laws Validity Act, 1865 (U.K.), 28 & 29 Vict., c. 63.
15 Robert C. Vipond, "1787 and 1867: The Federal Principle and Canadian Confederation Reconsidered" (1989) 22 Can. J. Pol. Sci. 3 at 10-12 and 18. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423900000810
16 The Constitution Act, 1867 (U.K.), 30 & 31 Vict., c. 3, ss. 92, 94, 95.
17 H.L.A. Hart, The Concept of Law, 3d ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012) at 100-101.
18 Peter Hogg & Wade Wright, Constitutional Law of Canada, 5th ed., looseleaf (Toronto: Carswell, 2007) at 17-2,17-3.
19 Peter Hogg & Wade Wright, Constitutional Law of Canada, 5th ed., looseleaf (Toronto: Carswell, 2007) at 17-3.
20 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at para. 207 (S.C.C.).
21 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at paras. 89-113 (S.C.C.).
22 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at paras. 114-119 (S.C.C.).
23 Reference re Genetic Non‑Discrimination Act, [2020] S.C.J. No. 17, 2020 SCC 17 at paras. 29, 66 (S.C.C.).
24 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at paras. 114-119 (S.C.C.).
25 Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) v. Vavilov, [2019] S.C.J. No. 65, 2019 SCC 65 at para. 265 (S.C.C.).
26 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at paras. 120-131 (S.C.C.).
27 Reference re Firearms Act (Can.), [2000] S.C.J. No. 31, [2000] 1 S.C.R. 783 at para. 52 (S.C.C.).
28 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at para. 126 (S.C.C.).
29 The Constitution Act, 1867 (U.K.), 30 & 31 Vict., c. 3, s. 92.
30 The Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act, 1982 (U.K.), 1982, c. 11, ss. 38-49.
31 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at para. 124 (S.C.C.).
32 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 (S.C.C.) [hereinafter "Anti-Inflation"].
33 John T. Saywell, The Lawmakers: Judicial Power and the Shaping of Canadian Federalism, 2d ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014) at 117.
34 St. Catharines Milling and Lumber Company v. The Queen, [1888] 14 A.C. 46 (J.C.P.C.); British Columbia (Attorney General) v. Canada (Attorney General) (1887), 14 S.C.R. 345, [1889] 14 A.C. 295 (S.C.C.).
35 John T. Saywell, The Lawmakers: Judicial Power and the Shaping of Canadian Federalism, 2d ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014) at 235. See also, Canadian Pacific Railway Co. v. British Columbia (Attorney General), [1949] J.C.J. No. 1, [1950] A.C. 122 at 127-128 (J.C.P.C.) [hereinafter "Canadian Pacific Railway"].
36 Johannesson v. West St. Paul (Rural Mun.), [1951] S.C.J. No. 50, [1952] 1 S.C.R. 292 (S.C.C.) [hereinafter "Johannesson"]; Munro v. Canada (National Capital Commission), [1966] S.C.J. No. 46, [1966] S.C.R. 663 (S.C.C.) [hereinafter "Munro"].
37 Ontario (Attorney General) v. Canada Temperance Federation, [1946] J.C.J. No. 7, [1946] A.C. 193 (J.C.P.C.) [hereinafter "Canada Temperance Federation"].
38 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11 at para. 97, 2021 SCC 11 (S.C.C.).
39 R. v. Crown Zellerbach Canada Ltd., [1988] S.C.J. No. 23, [1988] 1 S.C.R. 401 (S.C.C.) [hereinafter "Zellerbach"].
40 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 (S.C.C.).
41 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11 at para. 91, 2021 SCC 11 (S.C.C.).
42 John T. Saywell, The Lawmakers: Judicial Power and the Shaping of Canadian Federalism, 2d ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014) at 92.
43 John T. Saywell, The Lawmakers: Judicial Power and the Shaping of Canadian Federalism, 2d ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014) at 139.
44 Re Ontario Liquor License Case, [1896] J.C.J. No. 1, [1896] U.K.P.C. 20 (J.C.P.C.) [hereinafter "Local Prohibition"].
45 John T. Saywell, The Lawmakers: Judicial Power and the Shaping of Canadian Federalism, 2d ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014) at 162.
46 John T. Saywell, The Lawmakers: Judicial Power and the Shaping of Canadian Federalism, 2d ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014) at 162.
47 For instance, see quotation from Lord Atkin in Canada (Attorney General) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [1937] J.C.J. No. 5, [1937] U.K.P.C. 6 (J.C.P.C.).
48 John T. Saywell, The Lawmakers: Judicial Power and the Shaping of Canadian Federalism, 2d ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014) at 142.
49 See, for example, Maritime Bank of Canada (Liquidators) v. New Brunswick (Receiver-General), [1892] J.C.J. No. 1, [1892] A.C. 437 at 441-443 (J.C.P.C.).
https://doi.org/10.1093/mind/1.3.437-a
50 See, for example, John T. Saywell, The Lawmakers: Judicial Power and the Shaping of Canadian Federalism, 2d ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014) at 146; David Schneiderman, "A. V. Dicey, Lord Watson, and the Law of the Canadian Constitution in the Late Nineteenth Century" (1998) 16 L.H.R. 495 at 525-526 https://doi.org/10.2307/744242; Richard Risk, "Canadian Courts under the Influence" (1990) 40 U. of T. L.J. 687 at 731-733 https://doi.org/10.2307/825682; Peter H. Russell, Rainer Knopff & Ted Morton, Federalism and the Charter: Leading Constitutional Decisions (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1981) at 52; Murray Greenwood, "Lord Watson, Institutional Self-interest, and the Decentralization of Canadian Federalism in the 1890s" (1974) 9 U.B.C. L. Rev. 244 at 261.
51 Richard Haldane, "Lord Watson" (1899) 11 Jur. Rev. 278 at 281 [hereinafter "Haldane"].
52 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11 at paras. 92-97, 2021 SCC 11 (S.C.C.).
53 Peter Hogg & Wade Wright, Constitutional Law of Canada, 5th ed., looseleaf (Toronto: Carswell, 2007) at 17-20.
54 John T. Saywell, The Lawmakers: Judicial Power and the Shaping of Canadian Federalism, 2d ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014) at 150.
55 Richard Haldane, "Lord Watson" (1899) 11 Jur. Rev. 278 at 279.
56 Oral argument of Haldane in Toronto Electric Commissioners v. Snider, [1925] J.C.J. No. 1, [1925] A.C. 396 (J.C.P.C.), see John T. Saywell, The Lawmakers: Judicial Power and the Shaping of Canadian Federalism, 2d ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014) at 161.
57 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at paras. 95-96 (S.C.C.).
58 Reference re: Insurance Act 1910 (Can) ss. 4 and 70, [1916] J.C.J. No. 1 at para. 5, [1916] 1 A.C. 588 at 595 (J.C.P.C.) [hereinafter "Insurance Reference"].
59 Peter Hogg & Wade Wright, Constitutional Law of Canada, 5th ed., looseleaf (Toronto: Carswell, 2007) at 17-20.
60 Re Board of Commerce Act 1919 and the Combines and Fair Prices Act 1919, [1921] UKPC 107 at 112, [1922] 1 A.C. 191 at 200.
61 Peter Hogg & Wade Wright, Constitutional Law of Canada, 5th ed., looseleaf (Toronto: Carswell, 2007) at 17-5.
62 John T. Saywell, The Lawmakers: Judicial Power and the Shaping of Canadian Federalism, 2d ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014) at 150.
63 Canada (Attorney General) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [1937] J.C.J. No. 5, [1937] U.K.P.C. 6 (J.C.P.C.).
64 Canada (Attorney General) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [1937] J.C.J. No. 5, [1937] U.K.P.C. 6 at para. 14 (J.C.P.C.).
65 Canada (Attorney General) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [1937] J.C.J. No. 5, [1937] U.K.P.C. 6 at para. 14 (J.C.P.C.).
66 Peter Hogg & Wade Wright, Constitutional Law of Canada, 5th ed., looseleaf (Toronto: Carswell, 2007) at 17-22.
67 Canada (Attorney General) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [1937] J.C.J. No. 5, [1937] U.K.P.C. 6 at para. 15 (J.C.P.C.).
68 Peter Hogg & Wade Wright, Constitutional Law of Canada, 5th ed., looseleaf (Toronto: Carswell, 2007) at 17-22.
69 Canada (Attorney General) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [1937] J.C.J. No. 5, [1937] U.K.P.C. 6 at para. 14 (J.C.P.C.).
70 Canada (Attorney General) v. Ontario (Attorney General), [1937] J.C.J. No. 5, [1937] U.K.P.C. 6 at para. 15 (J.C.P.C.).
71 Toronto Electric Commissioners v. Snider, [1925] J.C.J. No. 1, [1925] A.C. 396 at 425 (J.C.P.C.).
72 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at para. 97 (S.C.C.).
73 Peter Hogg & Wade Wright, Constitutional Law of Canada, 5th ed., looseleaf (Toronto: Carswell, 2007) at 17-11.
74 John T. Saywell, The Lawmakers: Judicial Power and the Shaping of Canadian Federalism, 2d ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014) at 235-236.
75 John T. Saywell, The Lawmakers: Judicial Power and the Shaping of Canadian Federalism, 2d ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014) at 252.
76 Canadian Pacific Railway Co. v. British Columbia (Attorney General), [1949] J.C.J. No. 1, [1950] A.C. 122 at 127-128 (J.C.P.C.).
77 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11 at para. 98, 2021 SCC 11 (S.C.C.).
78 Johannesson v. West St. Paul (Rural Mun.), [1951] S.C.J. No. 50, [1952] 1 S.C.R. 292 at 303, 307-308, 312, 320, 326 (S.C.C.).
79 Canadian Pacific Railway Co. v. British Columbia (Attorney General), [1949] J.C.J. No. 1, [1950] A.C. 122 at 127-128 (J.C.P.C.).
80 Peter Hogg & Wade Wright, Constitutional Law of Canada, 5th ed., looseleaf (Toronto: Carswell, 2007) at 17-11.
81 John T. Saywell, The Lawmakers: Judicial Power and the Shaping of Canadian Federalism, 2d ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014) at 237.
82 John T. Saywell, The Lawmakers: Judicial Power and the Shaping of Canadian Federalism, 2d ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014) at 240.
83 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at para. 101 (S.C.C.).
84 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 458 (S.C.C.).
85 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 458 (S.C.C.).
86 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at para. 103 (S.C.C.).
87 John T. Saywell, The Lawmakers: Judicial Power and the Shaping of Canadian Federalism, 2d ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014) at 290.
88 R. v. Crown Zellerbach Canada Ltd., [1988] S.C.J. No. 23, [1988] 1 S.C.R. 401 at paras. 69-72 (S.C.C.).
89 R. v. Crown Zellerbach Canada Ltd., [1988] S.C.J. No. 23, [1988] 1 S.C.R. 401 at para. 72 (S.C.C.).
90 R. v. Crown Zellerbach Canada Ltd., [1988] S.C.J. No. 23, [1988] 1 S.C.R. 401 at para. 72 (S.C.C.).
91 R. v. Crown Zellerbach Canada Ltd., [1988] S.C.J. No. 23, [1988] 1 S.C.R. 401 at para. 72 (S.C.C.).
92 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11 at para. 108, 2021 SCC 11 (S.C.C.).
93 Jean Leclair, "The Elusive Quest for The Quintessential 'National Interest' " (2005) 38 U.B.C. L. Rev. 353 at 366.
94 Friends of the Oldman River Society v. Canada (Minister of Transport), [1992] S.C.J. No. 1, [1992] 1 S.C.R. 3 (S.C.C.) [hereinafter "Oldman River"].
95 R. v. Hydro-Québec, [1997] S.C.J. No. 76, [1997] 3 S.C.R. 213 (S.C.C.) [hereinafter "Hydro-Québec"].
96 R. v. Hydro-Québec, [1997] S.C.J. No. 76, [1997] 3 S.C.R. 213 at para. 116 (S.C.C.).
97 Micheline Patenaude, "L'interpretation du partages des competences a l'heure du libre-echange" (1990) 21 R. D. U. S. 1 at 16.
https://doi.org/10.7202/1108579ar
98 André Tremblay, Droit Constitutionnel: Principes (Montreal: Les Editions Themis, 1993) at 242.
99 Jean Leclair, "The Elusive Quest for The Quintessential 'National Interest' " (2005) 38 U.B.C. L. Rev. 353 at 366.
100 Henri Brun & Guy Tremblay, Droit Constitutionnel, 3d ed. (Montreal: Les Editions Yvon Blais, 1997) at 439.
101 Katherine Swinton, " 'Federalism under Fire' The Role of the Supreme Court of Canada" (1992) 55 Law and Contemporary Problems 121 at 136.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1191760
102 The Constitution Act, 1867 (U.K.), 30 & 31 Vict., c. 3, ss. 91, 92.
103 The Constitution Act, 1867 (U.K.), 30 & 31 Vict., c. 3, s. 92.
104 The Constitution Act, 1867 (U.K.), 30 & 31 Vict., c. 3, preamble and s. 18. See also Parliament of Canada Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. P-1, s. 4. See also Michael Gordon, Parliamentary Sovereignty in the UK Constitution: Process, Politics and Democracy (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2015) at 23-26.
105 Reference re Genetic Non‑Discrimination Act, [2020] S.C.J. No. 17, 2020 SCC 17 at para. 15 (S.C.C.). See also, Reference re Secession of Quebec, [1998] S.C.J. No. 61, [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217 at paras. 4-31 (S.C.C.); Jeremy Webber, The Constitution of Canada: A Contextual Analysis (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2021) at 115-116. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781509947201
106 See, for example, Reference re Genetic Non‑Discrimination Act, [2020] S.C.J. No. 17, 2020 SCC 17 at para. 15 (S.C.C.).
107 Reference re Genetic Non‑Discrimination Act, [2020] S.C.J. No. 17, 2020 SCC 17 at paras. 30-33 (S.C.C.).
108 Reference re Firearms Act (Can.), [2000] S.C.J. No. 31, [2000] 1 S.C.R. 783 at para. 52 (S.C.C.).
109 Reference re Firearms Act (Can.), [2000] S.C.J. No. 31, [2000] 1 S.C.R. 783 at para. 52 (S.C.C.).
110 The Constitution Act, 1867 (U.K.), 30 & 31 Vict., c. 3, ss. 91, 92.
111 The Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act, 1982 (U.K.), 1982, c. 11, ss. 38-49.
112 Canadian Western Bank v. Alberta, [2007] S.C.J. No. 22, [2007] 2 S.C.R. 3 at para. 75 (S.C.C.).
113 Jeremy Webber, The Constitution of Canada: A Contextual Analysis (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2021) at 131. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781509947201
114 Canadian Western Bank v. Alberta, [2007] S.C.J. No. 22, [2007] 2 S.C.R. 3 at para. 48 (S.C.C.).
115 The Constitution Act. 1867 (U.K.), 30 & 31 Vict., c. 3, ss. 91, 92.
116 Canadian Western Bank v. Alberta, [2007] S.C.J. No. 22, [2007] 2 S.C.R. 3 at para. 35 (S.C.C.).
117 Canadian Western Bank v. Alberta, [2007] S.C.J. No. 22, [2007] 2 S.C.R. 3 at paras. 35, 67 (S.C.C.).
118 Canadian Western Bank v. Alberta, [2007] S.C.J. No. 22, [2007] 2 S.C.R. 3 at para. 67 (S.C.C.).
119 The Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act, 1982 (U.K.), 1982, c. 11, ss. 38-49.
120 Bora Laskin, Canadian Constitutional Law: Cases, Text and Notes on Distribution of Legislative Power, 3d ed. (Toronto: Carswell, 1966) at 92.
121 The Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act, 1982 (U.K.), 1982, c. 11, ss. 38-49.
122 The Constitution Act, 1867 (U.K.), 30 & 31 Vict., c. 3, ss. 91, 92.
123 The Constitution Act, 1867 (U.K.), 30 & 31 Vict., c. 3, s. 91.
124 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 461 (S.C.C.).
125 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 458, 461 (S.C.C.).
126 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 458, 461 (S.C.C.).
127 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 457-458 (S.C.C.).
128 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 458 (S.C.C.).
129 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at para. 97 (S.C.C.).
130 R. v. Crown Zellerbach Canada Ltd., [1988] S.C.J. No. 23, [1988] 1 S.C.R. 401 at paras. 33, 69-72 (S.C.C.); R. v. Hydro-Québec, [1997] S.C.J. No. 76, [1997] 3 S.C.R. 213 at para. 116 (S.C.C.) (La Forest J. arguing that the full Court in Friends of the Oldman River Society v. Canada (Minister of Transport), [1992] S.C.J. No. 1, [1992] 1 S.C.R. 3 (S.C.C.) supported his dissent in Zellerbach).
131 R. v. Crown Zellerbach Canada Ltd., [1988] S.C.J. No. 23, [1988] 1 S.C.R. 401 at paras. 33-40 (S.C.C.).
132 Unfortunately, to establish Beetz J.'s position is challenging. Respectfully, his opinion is plagued with language usage which obscures its meaning. Today, the signifier for a head of power is "subject" and the one for the judicial characterization of a statute's essential purpose is "matter." Justice Beetz uses both "subject" and "matter" interchangeably, and in combination, referring to a subject as a class of subjects, a class of matters, a subject matter, a subject, and a matter. See Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 432, 433, 442, 445, 450, 451, 457, 458, 461, 463 (S.C.C.). He does the same for a matter, calling it a subject matter, a subject and a matter. See Anti-Inflation Reference at 442, 443, 454, 461. The interpreter is left to make sense of sentences with a passage such as "matters not coming within the classes of matters" or "the classes of subjects . . . the subject of the Act." See Anti-Inflation Reference at 450, 454.
133 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 458 (S.C.C.).
134 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 458 (S.C.C.).
135 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 458 (S.C.C.).
136 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 450 (S.C.C.).
137 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 461 (S.C.C.).
138 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 458 (S.C.C.).
139 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 458 (S.C.C.).
140 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 458 (S.C.C.).
141 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 458 (S.C.C.).
142 R. v. Crown Zellerbach Canada Ltd., [1988] S.C.J. No. 23, [1988] 1 S.C.R. 401 at paras. 69-72 (S.C.C.).
143 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 458 (S.C.C.). See also, R. v. Crown Zellerbach Canada Ltd., [1988] S.C.J. No. 23, [1988] 1 S.C.R. 401 at paras. 35, 72 (S.C.C.); Friends of the Oldman River Society v. Canada (Minister of Transport), [1992] S.C.J. No. 1, [1992] 1 S.C.R. 3 at para. 64 (S.C.C.); R. v. Hydro-Québec, [1997] S.C.J. No. 76, [1997] 3 S.C.R. 213 at paras. 115-116 (S.C.C.).
144 See, for example, References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at paras. 126-127 (S.C.C.).
145 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 458 (S.C.C.).
146 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at para. 127 (S.C.C.).
147 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 458 (S.C.C.).
148 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 458 (S.C.C.).
149 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 458 (S.C.C.).
150 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 458 (S.C.C.). See also, R. v. Crown Zellerbach Canada Ltd., [1988] S.C.J. No. 23, [1988] 1 S.C.R. 401 at paras. 35, 72 (S.C.C.); Friends of the Oldman River Society v. Canada (Minister of Transport), [1992] S.C.J. No. 1, [1992] 1 S.C.R. 3 at para. 64 (S.C.C.); R. v. Hydro-Québec, [1997] S.C.J. No. 76, [1997] 3 S.C.R. 213 at paras. 115-116 (S.C.C.).
151 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act, [1976] S.C.J. No. 12, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 373 at 458 (S.C.C.). See also, R. v. Crown Zellerbach Canada Ltd., [1988] S.C.J. No. 23, [1988] 1 S.C.R. 401 at paras. 35, 72 (S.C.C.); Friends of the Oldman River Society v. Canada (Minister of Transport), [1992] S.C.J. No. 1, [1992] 1 S.C.R. 3 at para. 64 (S.C.C.); R. v. Hydro-Québec, [1997] S.C.J. No. 76, [1997] 3 S.C.R. 213 at paras. 115-116 (S.C.C.).
152 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at para. 115 (S.C.C.).
153 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at para. 115 (S.C.C.).
154 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at para. 115 (S.C.C.).
155 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at para. 115 (S.C.C.).
156 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at paras. 114-118 (S.C.C.).
157 R. v. Crown Zellerbach Canada Ltd., [1988] S.C.J. No. 23, [1988] 1 S.C.R. 401 at paras. 33-40 (S.C.C.).
158 See generally, References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at paras. 110-221 (S.C.C.).
159 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at paras. 121-122, 124 (S.C.C.).
160 Jeremy Webber, The Constitution of Canada: A Contextual Analysis (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2021) at 131. See also, Diagrams 2 and 4.
https://doi.org/10.5040/9781509947201
161 Diagrams 2, 3 and 4.
162 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at para. 127 (S.C.C.). See also, Diagrams 2, 3 and 4.
163 References re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, [2021] S.C.J. No. 11, 2021 SCC 11 at paras. 126-129 (S.C.C.).
164 The Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act, 1982 (U.K.), 1982, c. 11, ss. 38-49.
