Policing in the Shadow of Legality: Pretext, Leveraging, and Investigation Cascades

Authors

Terry Skolnik, Faculty of Law, University of Ottawa

Document Type

Article

Abstract

Police officers often exercise their authority at the boundary of legality. Two of policing’s features contribute to this tendency: first, the scope of certain police powers is unclear; second, officers enjoy broad discretion to initiate proactive police encounters. This article argues that these interrelated features of policing result in three law enforcement phenomena: pretext, leveraging, and investigation cascades. Pretext denotes that police officers invoke lawful justifications to pursue unlawful aims. Leveraging implies that officers exploit individuals’ psychological vulnerabilities to secure compliance or to receive consent to engage in more intrusive investigatory tactics. Investigation cascades occur when officers gather information through police powers with low burdens of proof to exercise more invasive investigation tactics with stricter burdens of proof. This article demonstrates how criminal procedure fails to adequately protect individuals against pretext, leveraging, and investigation cascades. It concludes with a set of concrete proposals to address these three law enforcement phenomena.

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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 4.0 License.

Citation Information

Skolnik, Terry. "Policing in the Shadow of Legality: Pretext, Leveraging, and Investigation Cascades." Osgoode Hall Law Journal 60.3 (2023) : 505-548.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.60082/2817-5069.3923
https://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/ohlj/vol60/iss3/1

References

1. Associate professor, University of Ottawa, Faculty of Law. Co-director of the uOttawa Public Law Centre. I thank Anna Maria Konewka and Edward Béchard-Torres for comments on prior drafts of this article. I also thank the reviewers and the entire OHLJ editorial staff for their helpful feedback that improved this article considerably. All mistakes are my own.

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41. See Vanessa MacDonnell, "Assessing the Impact of the Ancillary Powers Doctrine on Three Decades of Charter Jurisprudence" (2012) 57 SCLR (2d) 225 at 226.

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43. See e.g. MacDonald, supra note 36 at paras 42-46.

44. See e.g. Fearon, supra note 39 at para 82.

45. See e.g. Grant, supra note 11 at paras 22-23.

46. See e.g. R v Le, 2019 SCC 34 [Le]. https://doi.org/10.18356/b43659f7-fr

47. See Woollcombe, supra note 3 at 484-85, 487 (discussing judicial consideration

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48. See Suberu, supra note 11 at paras 28-29 (noting that the state can limit the scope of section 9 Charter protection, provided the limit is reasonable and justifiable in a democratic society); Grant, supra note 11 at para 55.

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51. Ibid.

52. See Grant, supra note 11 at para 58.

53. Supra note 11.

54. Ibid at para 8.

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid at para 9.

57. Ibid.

58. Ibid at para 10 [sic].

59. Ibid at paras 9, 27-28, 35.

60. See e.g. R v Lafrance, 2022 SCC 32 at para 58 (noting the power imbalance between police and individuals).

61. See Penney, "Driving While Innocent," supra note 2 at 349-52.

62. Supra note 12.

63. Ibid.

64. Ibid at 1286-87.

65. Ibid; 2010 SCC 24 at paras 32-41 [Nolet SCC].

66. See Nolet SCC, supra note 65 at paras 32-41.

67. Ibid at paras 32-41.

68. Ibid at para 41; Gonzales, supra note 6 at para 58.

69. Nolet SCC, supra note 65 at paras 35-41, citing R v Ladouceur, 2002 SKCA 73 at para 66. See also Steve Coughlan, "Charter Protection against Unlawful Police Action: Less Black and White Than It Seems" (2012) 57 SCLR (2d) 205 at 222. https://doi.org/10.60082/2563-8505.1237

70. See e.g. R v Upright, 2020 ABCA 227 at paras 3-9 (the initial stop was justified by the defendant's failure to activate their turn signal) R v Harding, 2010 ABCA 180 at para 18

(the initial stop was justified by the defendant's muddy licence plate); R v Kaddoura, 2009 BCCA 113 at paras 11-25 (the initial traffic stop was justified by the driver's burnt-out tail light); R v Nguyen, 2017 BCSC 105 (the initial traffic stop was justified by the driver having changed lanes without signalling).

71. See e.g. KangBrown, supra note 38; Clayton, supra note 33; MacDonald, supra note 36.

72. See John Burchill, "A Horse Gallops down a Street…: Policing and the Resilience of the

Common Law" (2018) 41 Man LJ 161 at 178. https://doi.org/10.29173/mlj1074

73. Ibid.

74. Ibid at 162; Terry Skolnik, "Policing, Technology, and the Erosion of Constitutional Rights" [forthcoming in Queen's LJ].

75. See Steve Coughlan, "Common Law Police Powers and the Rule of Law" (2007) 47 CR

(6th) 266 at 267.

76. See Kim Forde-Mazrui, "Ruling Out the Rule of Law" (2007) 60 Vand L Rev 1495 at 1500-1503.

77. See Libman, supra note 9 at 459; Catherine Chesnay, Céline Bellot & Marie-Ève Sylvestre, "Judiciarisation des personnes itinérantes à Québec : une géographie des pratiques policières répressives au service de la revitalisation" (2014) 28 ÉchoGéo 1 at 6, para 23.

78. See Terry Skolnik, "How and Why Homeless People Are Regulated Differently" (2018) 43

Queen's LJ 297 at 304-307.

79. See Libman, supra note 9 at 459; HTA, supra note 21, ss 144, 218; Parks and Facilities

By-law, supra note 26, s 18; POA, supra note 26, s 61.

80. See Terry Skolnik, "Homelessness and the Impossibility to Obey the Law" (2016) 43

Fordham Urb LJ 741 at 766-77.

81. Ibid.

82. See Wayne Logan, "Police Mistakes of Law" (2011) 61 Emory LJ 69 at 83; Kate Levine,

"Police Suspects" (2016) 116 Colum L Rev 1197 at 1207-208.

83. Ibid.

84. Jeffrey Love, "Fair Notice about Fair Notice" (2012) 121 Yale LJ 2395 at 2402; R v Jobidon, [1991] 2 SCR 714 at 774, Sopinka J.

85. See e.g. AM, supra note 38; KangBrown, supra note 38.

86. See Shon Hopwood, "Clarity in Criminal Law" (2017) 54 Am Crim L Rev 695 at 731-32;

Susan Pilcher, "Ignorance, Discretion and the Fairness of Notice: Confronting Apparent

Innocence in the Criminal Law" (1995) 33 Am Crim L Rev 1 at 31-32.

87. See David Pozen, "Deep Secrecy" (2010) 62 Stan L Rev 257 at 278-79.

88. Ibid.

89. See Devon Carbado, "Predatory Policing" (2017) 85 UMKC L Rev 545 at 549-51;

Megan Stevenson & Sandra Mayson, "The Scale of Misdemeanor Justice" (2018) 98 BUL

Rev 731 at 766.

90. See Ladouceur, supra note 6 at 1273-76.

91. See Suberu, supra note 11 at paras 28-29; Grant, supra note 11 at para 47.

92. See Terry Skolnik, "The Suspicious Distinction Between Reasonable Suspicion and

Reasonable Grounds to Believe" (2016) 47 Ottawa L Rev 223 at 227-28.

93. See Sklansky, supra note 10 at 272. See e.g. Jo Lofaro & Daniel J Rowe, "After Black Man

Stopped 37 Times, Eight Quebec Police Officers Cited for Racial Profiling," CTV News (31 March 2022), online: https://montreal.ctvnews.ca/after-black-man-stopped-37-times-eight-quebec-police-officers-cited-for-racial-profiling-1.5842376 [perma.cc/Y2GY-B34R].

94. See Janice Nadler, "Consent, Dignity, and the Failure of Scattershot Policing" in John T

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95. See Alice Ristroph, "The Constitution of Police Violence" (2017) 64 UCLA L Rev 1182 at 1185, 1189, 1192. See e.g. Le, supra note 46 at para 103; Desmond Cole, "The Skin I'm In:

I've Been Interrogated by Police More than 50 Times-All Because I'm Black," Toronto Life (21 April 2015), online: https://torontolife.com/life/skin-im-ive-interrogated-police-50-times-im-black/ [perma.cc/6L5F-SVYJ]; Amar Khoday, "Ending the Erasure?: Writing Race into the

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96. Le, supra note 46 at paras 1-2, 9-12, 70.

97. Ibid at para 1.

98. Ibid at paras 9-13.

99. Ibid at paras 12-13.

100. Ibid at paras 14-15.

101. Ibid.

102. Ibid at para 16.

103. Ibid at paras 134, 166.

104. Ibid at paras 98-106.

105. Ibid at para 103.

106. See Part III, above.

107. See Joseph H Tieger, "Police Discretion and Discriminatory Enforcement" [1971] Duke LJ 717 at 717, 722.

108. David A Harris, "'Driving While Black' and All Other Traffic Offenses: The Supreme Court and Pretextual Traffic Stops" (1997) 87 J Crim L & Criminology 544 at 560. https://doi.org/10.2307/1143954

109. Ibid.

110. For an overview, see Terry Skolnik, "Racial Profiling and the Perils of Ancillary Police

Powers" (2021) 99 Can Bar Rev 429 at 436-37 [Skolnik, "Racial Profiling"]. For information concerning other disparities in the criminal justice system regarding Indigenous persons,

see Kelsey L Sitar, "Gladue as a Sword: Incorporating Critical Race Perspectives into the Canadian Criminal Trial" (2016) 20 Can Crim L Rev 247 at 248. 111. See James Stribopoulos, "Packer's Blind Spot: Low Visibility Encounters and the Limits of

Due Process versus Crime Control" in François Tanguay-Renaud & James Stribopoulos, eds,

Rethinking Criminal Law Theory: New Canadian Perspectives in the Philosophy of Domestic,

Transnational, and International Criminal Law (Hart, 2012) 193 at 196.

112. Ibid.

113. See Jonathan Blanks, "Thin Blue Lies: How Pretextual Stops Undermine Police Legitimacy" (2016) 66 Case W Res L Rev 931 at 935.

114. See R v Orbanski; R v Elias, 2005 SCC 37 at para 40.

115. See Lu-in Wang, "Race as Proxy: Situational Racism and Self-Fulfilling Stereotypes" (2004) 53 DePaul L Rev 1013 at 1046-47.

116. See Timothy P O'Neill, "Beyond Privacy, Beyond Probable Cause, Beyond the Fourth

Amendment: New Strategies for Fighting Pretext Arrests" (1998) 69 U Colo L Rev 693 at 693-96; Harris, supra note 108 at 545-47.

117. Nolet SKCA, supra note 13.

118. See Christopher Slobogin, "Deceit, Pretext, and Trickery: Investigative Lies by the Police" (1997) 76 Or L Rev 775 at 782.

119. See David M Tanovich, "Applying the Racial Profiling Correspondence Test" (2017) 64 Crim LQ 359 at 374 [Tanovich, "Racial Profiling Correspondence Test"].

120. See e.g. Brown v Durham Regional Police Force (1998), 43 OR (3d) 223 (CA) [Brown].

121. See Penney, "Driving While Innocent," supra note 2 at 349-52.

122. Ibid at 341.

123. Ibid.

124. See HTA, supra note 21, s 33.

125. See Carrie B Sanders & Samantha Henderson, "Police 'Empires' and Information

Technologies: Uncovering Material and Organisational Barriers to Information Sharing

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126. See e.g. R v Loewen, 2018 SKCA 69 at paras 7, 35; Mhlongo, supra note 6 at paras 33-34; R v Valentine, 2014 ONCA 147 at para 9; Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada,

Audit of Selected RCMP Databases (Final Report) (Privacy Commissioner of Canada, 2011)

at 7; Royal Canadian Mounted Police, "Canadian Police Information Centre" (last modified

7 February 2005), online: [perma.cc/E8YF-GKF7].

127. See Penney, "Driving While Innocent," supra note 2 at 354.

128. See R v Mellenthin, [1992] 3 SCR 615 at 623-24.

129. See Penney, "Driving While Innocent," supra note 2 at 354; R v Chehil, 2013 SCC 49;

Kang-Brown, supra note 38; R v Stewart, 2020 ABCA 252; R v Stonefish, 2019 ONCA 914. 130. See e.g. R v Bramley, 2009 SKCA 49 at paras 46-48; R v Tran, 2012 NBCA 74.

131. See e.g. Cannabis Control Act, 2017, SO 2017, c 26, Sched 1, s 12.

132. Nolet SCC, supra note 65 at para 41.

133. For a summary of the relevant court decisions and their conclusions, see R v Atkinson, 2019 ONSC 3717 at para 170 [Atkinson], citing Nolet SCC, supra note 65 at paras 36, 41; Brown, supra note 120 at 234; R v Morris, 2011 ONSC 5142 [Morris SC], aff'd 2013 ONCA

223 [Morris CA].

134. Atkinson, supra note 133 at para 170.

135. See Brown, supra note 120 at 236-38, cited in Atkinson, supra note 133 at para 170, n 2. 136. See Nolet SCC, supra note 65 at para 41; Gonzales, supra note 6.

137. See e.g. Morris SC, supra note 133 at para 38, aff'd Morris CA, supra note 133 at para 8.

138. See R v Kaddoura, 2009 BCCA 113 at paras 11-25; R v Nguyen, 2017 BCSC 105.

139. See Kenneth Culp Davis, "Approach to Legal Control of the Police" (1974) 52 Tex L

Rev 703 at 704.

140. To see where this argument was previously advanced, see Skolnik, "Rééquilibrer le

rôle," supra note 4.

141. See Barry Friedman & Maria Ponomarenko, "Democratic Policing" (2015) 90 NYU L Rev

1827 at 1865-77.

142. See Stuntz, "Uneasy Relationship," supra note 14 at 12.

143. See Roach, "Remedies," supra note 8 at 403-405; Mariève Lacroix, "La responsabilité civile des forces policières: l'impact de la Charte québécoise et l'octroi de dommages punitifs" (2017) 51 RJTUM 547 at 566-67.

144. See Ranjan Agarwal & Joseph Marcus, "Where There is No Remedy, There is No

Right: Using Charter Damages to Compensate Victims of Racial Profiling" (2015) 34

NJCL 75 at 94-97

145. Ibid at 96.

146. On the notion of "procedural hassles," see Issa Kohler-Hausmann, Misdemeanorland:

Criminal Courts and Social Control in an Age of Broken Windows Policing (Princeton

University Press, 2018) at 183-84.

147. See Kent Roach, "Models of Civilian Police Review: The Objectives and Mechanisms of

Legal and Political Regulation of the Police" (2014) 61 Crim LQ 29 at 59-60.

148. See Levine, supra note 82 at 1232-33.

149. See Joseph Goldstein, "Police Discretion Not to Invoke the Criminal Process: Low-Visibility Decisions in the Administration of Justice" (1960) 69 Yale LJ 543 at 580. https://doi.org/10.2307/794445

150. Ibid at 581.

151. See Kim Moeller & Sveinung Sandberg, "Debts and Threats: Managing Inability to Repay Credits in Illicit Drug Distribution" (2017) 34 Justice Q 272 at 288-290. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2016.1162321

152. This quote is taken from Denzel Washington's character in the film Training Day. The

original quote is, "It's not what you know. It's what you can prove." Training Day (Warner Bros, 2001) at 01:39:00-01:39:06.

153. R v Brown (2003), 173 CCC (3d) 23 (Ont CA) at para 44. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-388-0_2

154. See e.g. Nadler, "Scattershot Policing," supra note 94 at 95-96.

155. See Joseph G Casaccio, "Illegally Acquired Information, Consent Searches, and Tainted Fruit" [1987] Columbia L Rev 842 at 843.

156. See Ontario, The Honourable Justice Michael H Tulloch, Report of the Independent Street Checks Review (Queen's Printer for Ontario, 2018) at 123-24, 250.

157. Ibid.

158. See Bennett Capers, "Policing, Technology, and Doctrinal Assists" (2018) 69 Fla L Rev

723 at 745-46.

159. See Janice Nadler, "No Need to Shout: Bus Sweeps and the Psychology of Coercion" [2002] Sup Ct Rev 153 at 202 [Nadler, "No Need to Shout"]. See e.g. Le, supra note 46 at para 103; Cole, supra note 95; Khoday, supra note 95 at 182.

160. See Eric J Miller, "Encountering Resistance: Contesting Policing and Procedural Justice" [2016] U Chicago Legal F 295 at 322-24 [Miller, "Encountering Resistance"].

161. See Roseanna Sommers & Vanessa K Bohns "The Voluntariness of Voluntary Consent:

Consent Searches and the Psychology of Compliance" (2019) 128 Yale LJ 1962 at 1966, citing Paul Sutton, "The Fourth Amendment in Action: An Empirical View of the Search

Warrant Process" (1986) 22 Crim L Bull 405 at 415. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-1688.1986.tb01895.x

162. See David Rudovsky & David Harris, "Terry Stops and Frisks: The Troubling Use of Common Sense in a World of Empirical Data" (2018) 79 Ohio St LJ 501 at 532, citing New

Jersey, State Police Review Team, Interim Report of the State Police Review Team Regarding

Allegations of Racial Profiling, by Peter Verniero & Paul Zoubek (State of New Jersey,

1999) at 26-28.

163. Verniero & Zoubek, supra note 162 at 6-7.

164. Suspect Citizens: What 20 Million Traffic Stops Tell Us about Policing and Race (Cambridge University Press, 2018) at 85-86. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511431.2018.1519384

165. Ibid at 86.

166. Searching for Consent: An Analysis of Racial Profiling Data in Texas (Texas Criminal Justice

Coalition, 2006) at 1-2.

167. Ibid at 4.

168. Nova Scotia Human Rights Commission, Halifax, Nova Scotia: Street Checks Report, by Scot Wortley (Nova Scotia Human Rights Commission, 2019) at 4.

169. See Part II(B), above.

170. See Alafair S Burke, "Consent Searches and Fourth Amendment Reasonableness" (2015) 67 Fla L Rev 509 at 528-29.

171. See e.g. Miller, "Encountering Resistance," supra note 160 at 342 (describing the "talk" that parents give to their African-American children, namely, to comply with the police to avoid forceful encounters); Le, supra note 46 at para 103.

172. See I Bennett Capers, "Criminal Procedure and the Good Citizen" (2018) 118 Colum L Rev 653 at 697-98.

173. Ibid.

174. See L Rush Atkinson, "The Bilateral Fourth Amendment and the Duties of Law-Abiding

Persons" (2011) 99 Geo LJ 1517 at 1523-24.

175. See Paul Butler, Choke Hold: Policing Black Men (New Press, 2017) at 8.

176. See David Dixon, Clive Coleman & Keith Bottomley, "Consent and the Legal Regulation of Policing" (1990) 17 JL & Soc'y 345 at 348. https://doi.org/10.2307/1410158

177. See Illya D Lichtenberg, Voluntary Consent or Obedience to Authority: An Inquiry into the 'Consensual' Police-Citizen Encounter (University Microfilms International, 1999) at 260-75. 178. Ibid.

179. "Free to Leave? An Empirical Look at the Fourth Amendment's Seizure Standard" (2008) 99 J Crim L & Criminology 51.

180. Ibid at 73.

181. Ibid at 75-77.

182. Ibid at 78-79.

183. "Testing Judicial Assumptions of the 'Consensual' Encounter: An Experimental Study"

(2013) 14 Fla Coastal L Rev 285 at 300-302.

184. Ibid at 291.

185. Ibid.

186. Police Requests for Compliance: Coercive and Procedurally Just Tactics (LFB Scholarly, 2003) at 53-58.

187. Ibid at 56.

188. Lichtenberg, supra note 177 at 386.

189. Ibid.

190. See Los Angeles Police Department, Arrest, Discipline, Use of Force, Field Data Capture and Audit Statistics and the City Status Report Covering January 1, 2006 - June 30, 2006 (Los Angeles Police Department, 2006) at 8, citing Oren Bar-Gill & Barry Friedman, "Taking Warrants Seriously" (2012) 64 Nw UL Rev 1609 at 1662.

191. Ibid (the research shows that 16,228 requests to conduct a consent search were made and 16,225 of those requests were granted).

192. See Tom R Tyler & Jonathan Jackson, "Popular Legitimacy and the Exercise of Legal

Authority: Motivating Compliance, Cooperation, and Engagement" (2014) 20 Psychol Pub Pol'y & L 78 at 78 https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034514;Tom R Tyler, Jonathan Jackson & Avital Mentovich "The Consequences of Being an Object of Suspicion: Potential Pitfalls of Proactive Police Contact" (2015) 12 J Empirical Leg Stud 602 at 616-17. https://doi.org/10.1111/jels.12086

193. See Lorraine Mazerolle et al, "Shaping Citizen Perceptions of Police Legitimacy:

A Randomized Field Trial of Procedural Justice" (2013) 51 Criminology 33 at 36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2012.00289.x

194. Grant, supra note 11 at para 6.

195. Ibid at paras 47-49. Note that the Court still concluded that Grant was detained based on other aspects of the officers' conduct, such as displaying their police badge to the defendant, blocking his path, and questioning him pointedly. Ibid at paras 48-52.

196. Suberu, supra note 11 at paras 9, 33.

197. R v Borden, [1994] 3 SCR 145.

198. Ibid at 162. See also R v Wills, [1992] OJ No 294 (QL) (CA) at para 69.

199. See e.g. R v Van Wissen, 2018 MBCA 110; R v McMahon, 2018 SKCA 26; R v Nicholas,

2017 ONCA 646.

200. See Ulrich Schmidt & Horst Zank, "What is Loss Aversion?" (2005) 30 J Risk & Uncertainty 157 at 157-58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11166-005-6564-6

201. Ibid. See also Daniel Kahneman, Jack Knetsch & Richard H Thaler, "Anomalies: The

Endowment Effect, Loss Aversion, and Status Quo Bias" (1991) 5 J Economic Perspectives

193 at 199-204 https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.5.1.193; Chris Guthrie, "Prospect Theory, Risk Preference, and the Law" (2003) 97 NW UL Rev 1115 at 1119.

202. Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman, "Advances in Prospect Theory: Cumulative

Representation of Uncertainty" (1992) 5 J Risk & Uncertainty 297 at 298. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00122574

203. See Eyal Zamir, "Law's Loss Aversion" in Eyal Zamir & Doron Teichman, eds, The

Oxford Handbook of Behavioral Economics and the Law (Oxford University Press, 2014)

268 at 271-72.

204. See Geoffrey Engelstein, Achievement Relocked: Loss Aversion and Game Design (MIT

Press, 2020) at 5.

205. See Todd Rogers & Max H Bazerman, "Negotiation" in David Sander & Klaus R Scherer,

eds, The Oxford Companion to Emotion and the Affective Sciences (Oxford University Press, 2009) 275 at 275.

206. See Stephanos Bibas, "Plea Bargaining Outside the Shadow of Trial" (2004) 117 Harv L Rev 2463 at 2508-509 [Bibas, "Plea Bargaining"].https://doi.org/10.2307/4093404

207. See Allison D Redlich et al, "The Psychology of Defendant Plea Decision Making" (2017) 72 American Psychologist 339 at 344, 348-49; Samuel R Gross, "Pretrial Incentives,

Post-Conviction Review, and Sorting Criminal Prosecutions by Guilt or Innocence" (2011) 56 NYL Sch L Rev 1009 at 1019.

208. Vladas Griskevicius & Joshua Ackerman, "Evolution, Consumer Behaviour, and

Decision-Making" (2012) 38 Advances in Consumer Research 153 at 153.

209. See Lichtenberg, supra note 177 at 260-75.

210. See e.g. ibid at 264-65; Nadler, "No Need to Shout," supra note 159 at 202.

211. See Lichtenberg, supra note 177 at 260-75; Charles R Epp, Steven Maynard‐Moody &

Donald Haider‐Markel, Pulled Over: How Police Stops Define Race and Citizenship (University of Chicago Press, 2014) at 116. See also Eric J Miller, "Police Encounters with Race and Gender" (2015) 5 UC Irvine L Rev 735 at 752-53.

212. See Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman, "Availability: A Heuristic for Judging Frequency and Probability" (1973) 5 Cognitive Psychology 207 at 208-209 https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(73)90033-9; Rémi Boivin et al, "The Malleability of Attitudes Toward the Police: Immediate Effects of the Viewing of Police Use of Force Videos" (2017) 18 Police Practice & Research 366 at 372. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2016.1230063

213. See Norbert Schwarz et al, "Ease of Retrieval as Information: Another Look at the

Availability Heuristic" (1991) 61 J Personality & Soc Psychology 195 at 195. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.61.2.195

214. See e.g. Boivin et al, supra note 212 at 372; Seth W Stoughton, Jeffrey J Noble & Geoffrey P Alpert, Evaluating Police Uses of Force (NYU Press, 2020) at 3. Although these sources describe how individuals may overestimate the likelihood of use of force due to the

availability heuristic, it is also plausible that individuals adjust their conduct in light of how they assess the likelihood of police use of force.

215. See Lynn A Baker, "Prices of Rights: Toward a Positive Theory of Unconstitutional

Conditions" (1990) 75 Cornell L Rev 1185 at 1251.

216. See Tracey Maclin, "The Good and Bad News about Consent Searches in the Supreme

Court" (2008) 39 McGeorge L Rev 27 at 28; Beau C Tremitiere, "The Fallacy of a https://doi.org/10.1097/01.NUMA.0000333720.50239.a3

Colorblind Consent Search Doctrine" (2017) 112 Nw U L Rev 527 at 529, 552. https://doi.org/10.1353/mlr.2017.0151

217. See Lichtenberg, supra note 177 at 260-75.

218. See Grant, supra note 11 at para 169.

219. See Sklansky, supra note 10 at 275; I Bennett Capers, "Race, Policing, and Technology" (2017) 95 NCL Rev 1241 at 1264-65

William Stuntz, "Privacy's Problem and the Law of Criminal Procedure" (1995) 93 Mich L Rev 1016 at 1063 [Stuntz, "Privacy's Problem"]. https://doi.org/10.2307/1289989

220. Carbado, supra note 89 at 553.

221. Ibid at 552-53

222. See Terry Skolnik, "R. v. Macdonald and the Illogicality of the Reasonable Belief Requirement for Safety Searches" (2015) 62 Crim LQ 43 at 49 [Skolnik, "R. v. Macdonald"].

223. See Stuntz, "Privacy's Problem," supra note 219 at 1029.

224. See Don Stuart, "The Charter and Criminal Justice" in Peter Oliver, Patrick Macklem &

Nathalie Des Rosiers, eds, The Oxford Handbook of the Canadian Constitution (Oxford

University Press, 2017) 795 at 799-804.

225. Ibid; Alan Young, "All Along the Watchtower: Arbitrary Detention and the Police Function" (1991) 29 Osgoode Hall LJ 329 at 349, 365.

226. See Part I(C), above.

227. See Part II(C), above.

228. See Nirej Sekhon, "Police and the Limits of the Law" (2019) 119 Columbia L Rev 1711

at 1725; Lisa Jørgensen, "In Plain View?: R v Jones and the Challenge of Protecting Privacy Rights in an Era of Computer Search" (2013) 46 UBC L Rev 791 at 802.

229. For a similar hypothetical, see Carbado, supra note 89 at 552-53.

230. I thank the anonymous reviewer for helpful feedback and suggestions on this point.

231. See James Stribopoulos, "A Failed Experiment? Investigative Detention: Ten Years Later" (2003) 41 Alta L Rev 335 at 339-40.

232. See e.g. Cloutier, supra note 37; R v Caslake, [1998] 1 SCR 51.

233. See Skolnik, "R. v. Macdonald," supra note 222 at 48 (noting that individuals have an

informational advantage because they know whether they are armed).

234. See David M Tanovich, "E-Racing Racial Profiling" (2004) 41 Alta L Rev 905 at 911 https://doi.org/10.29173/alr1313 [Tanovich, "E-Racing"].

235. See Alexander E Eisemann, "Addressing the Pretext Problem: The Role of Subjective Police Motivation in Establishing Fourth Amendment Violations" (1983) 63 BUL Rev 223 at 275.

236. See Slobogin, supra note 118 at 809.

237. Ibid.

238. See Criminal Code, supra note 17, s 515(6); Martin L Friedland, "The Bail Reform Act

Revisited" (2012) 16 Can Crim L Rev 316 at 320.

239. See Gary Trotter, Law of Bail in Canada, 3rd ed (Thompson Reuters, 2017), ss 3.4(e)-(f).

240. Ibid, ss 3.3-3.4.

241. Ibid; Criminal Code, supra note 17, s 515(10)(c).

242. Criminal Code, supra note 17, s 515(10)(c). See e.g. ibid, ss 88 (possession of firearm for a dangerous purpose, which is punishable by a maximum of ten years imprisonment),

91 (unauthorized possession of a firearm, which is punishable by a maximum of five years imprisonment), 92 (possession of a firearm knowing its possession is unauthorized, which

is punishable by a maximum of ten years imprisonment). See also Controlled Drugs and

Substances Act, SC 1996, c 19, ss 4(3)-(4) (possession of a Schedule I or II substance, which are punishable by a maximum of seven years and five years less a day, respectively), 5(3) (trafficking of a Schedule I or II substance, which are both punishable by life imprisonment).

243. For an overview of the research, see Alfred Allan et al, "An Observational Study of Bail

Decision-Making" (2005) 12 Psychiatry Psychology & L 319 at 320 https://doi.org/10.1375/pplt.12.2.319; Crystal S Yang, "Toward an Optimal Bail System" (2017) 92 NYU L Rev 1399 at 1488.

244. See R v Summers, 2014 SCC 26 at paras 2, 28; Terry Skolnik, "Criminal Law During (and After) COVID-19" (2020) 43 Man LJ 145 at 164. https://doi.org/10.5414/ALP43164

245. See Andrew Manuel Crespo, "The Hidden Law of Plea Bargaining" (2018) 118 Colum L

Rev 1303 at 1311-13.

246. See Bibas, "Plea Bargaining," supra note 206 at 2507-509.

247. See Russell D Covey, "Fixed Justice: Reforming Plea Bargaining with Plea-Based Ceilings" (2008) 82 Tul L Rev 1237 at 1282.

248. See Palma Paciocco, "Seeking Justice by Plea: The Prosecutor's Ethical Obligations During Plea Bargaining" (2017) 63 McGill LJ 45 at 52. https://doi.org/10.7202/1054351ar

249. Ibid at 63; Kyle Graham, "Crimes, Widgets, and Plea Bargaining: An Analysis of Charge

Content, Pleas, and Trials" (2012) 100 Cal L Rev 1573 at 1582.

250. See Russell Covey, "Reconsidering the Relationship between Cognitive Psychology and Plea Bargaining" (2007) 91 Marq L Rev 213 at 227-28; Kienapple v R, [1975] 1 SCR 729.

I thank the anonymous reviewer for their feedback on this point.

251. Grant, supra note 11 at paras 72-86. https://doi.org/10.1386/fiin.11.6.86_5

252. Ibid at para 81.

253. See Wayne Gorman, "The Admission and Exclusion of Unconstitutionally Obtained

Evidence in Canada" (2018) 54 Court Rev 108 at 112-14, citing Ariane Asselin, "Trends for Exclusion of Evidence in 2012" (2013) 1 CR (7th) 74 at 74.

254. See Richard Jochelson, Debao Huang & Melanie Murchison, "Empiricizing Exclusionary Remedies: A Cross Canada Study of Exclusion of Evidence under s.24(2) of the Charter, Five Years after Grant" (2016) 63 Crim LQ 206 at 221. Mike Madden's empirical analysis arrived at somewhat similar exclusion rates. See also Mike Madden, "Marshalling the Data: An Empirical Analysis of Canada's Section 24 (2) Case Law in the Wake of R. v. Grant" (2011) 15 Can Crim L Rev 228 at 245.

255. See Benjamin Johnson, Richard Jochelson & Victoria Weir, "Exclusion of Evidence Under Section 24(2) of the Charter Post-Grant in the Years 2014-2017: A Comprehensive Analysis of 600 Cases" (2019) 66 Crim LQ 41 at 72.

256. See Steven Penney & Moin Yahya, "Section 24(2) in the Trial Courts: An Empirical Analysis of the Legal and Non-Legal Determinants of Excluding Unconstitutionally Obtained Evidence in Canada" (2021) 58 Osgoode Hall LJ 509 at 548, n 149. https://doi.org/10.60082/2817-5069.3711

257. See Stuntz, "Uneasy Relationship," supra note 14 at 32-35.

258. See Steven Penney, "Taking Deterrence Seriously: Excluding Unconstitutionally Obtained Evidence under Section 24(2) of the Charter" (2003) 49 McGill LJ 105 at 112-14.

259. See Stuntz, "Uneasy Relationship," supra note 14 at 32-35.

260. Ibid at 32-35.

261. Ibid.

262. Ibid.

263. Ibid at 31.

264. See Criminal Code, supra note 17, s 462.32.

265. Ibid, s 462.34(1); R v Rafilovich, 2019 SCC 51 at para 4 [Rafilovich].

266. Supra note 17, s 462.34(5).

267. See Rafilovich, supra note 265 at para 36.

268. See e.g. David M Tanovich, The Colour of Justice: Policing Race in Canada (Irwin Law, 2006) at 121-83; Skolnik, "Rééquilibrer le rôle," supra note 4.

269. See generally Terry Skolnik, "Criminal Justice Reform: A Transformative Agenda" (2022) 59 Alta L Rev 631 [Skolnik, "Criminal Justice Reform"].

270. See generally ibid.

271. See Friedman & Ponomarenko, supra note 141; David Alan Sklansky, "Police and

Democracy" (2005) 103 Mich L Rev 1699.

272. See Tanovich, "E-Racing," supra note 234 at 928-29; Penney, "Driving While Innocent,"

supra note 2 at 377.

273. Ibid. Note that the Superior Court of Quebec recently concluded that random traffic stops are unconstitutional in Luamba c Procureur général du Québec, 2022 QCCS 3866. The decision has been appealed to the Court of Appeal of Quebec. On the Luamba decision and the unconstitutionality of traffic stops, see also Terry Skolnik & Fernando Belton, "Luamba et la fin des interceptions au hasard" (2023) 101 Canadian Bar Rev (forthcoming) (discussing the unconstitutionality of random traffic stops and the implications of the Luamba decision).

274. See I Bennett Capers, "Rethinking the Fourth Amendment: Race, Citizenship, and the Equality Principle" (2011) 46 Harv CR-CLL Rev 1 at 16. For a definition of social profiling,

see Quebec, Commission des droits de la personne et droits de la jeunesse, The Judiciarization of the Homeless in Montréal: A Case of Social Profiling, Catalogue No 2.120-8.61.2 (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse, 2009) at 3 ("If, in the case of racial profiling, skin colour is the factor that triggers police intervention, in the case of social profiling, the trigger is the visible signs of poverty or marginality").

275. See Devin English et al, "Measuring Black Men's Police-Based Discrimination Experiences: Development and Validation of the Police and Law Enforcement (PLE) Scale" (2017) 23 Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology 185 at 195 https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000137.

276. See Skolnik, "Rééquilibrer le rôle," supra note 4.

277. See Tyler, Jackson & Mentovich, supra note 192 at 629-30.

278. See Wortley, supra note 168 at 41.

279. See Jordan Blair Woods, "Policing, Danger Narratives, and Routine Traffic Stops" (2019) 117 Mich L Rev 635 at 704.

280. Supra note 17, ss 31, 495.

281. See Terry Skolnik & Vanessa MacDonnell, "Policing Arbitrariness: Fleming v. Ontario and the Ancillary Powers Doctrine" (2021) 100 SCLR (2d) 187 at 201-202.

282. Ibid; Criminal Code, supra note 17, s 495.

283. See Tim Quigley, "The Impact of the Charter on the Law of Search and Seizure" (2008) 40 https://doi.org/10.60082/2563-8505.1112

SCLR (2d) 118 at 121-22; Criminal Code, supra note 17, ss 529.1, 529.3; R v Feeney, [1997] 2 SCR 1; R v Macooh, [1993] 2 SCR 802.

284. See Tulloch, supra note 156 at 124.

285. See Elsa Kaka, "The Supreme Court of Canada's Justification of Charter Breaches and its Effect on Black and Indigenous Communities" (2020) 4 Man LJ 117 at 124.

286. See Yunliang Meng, "Profiling Minorities: Police Stop and Search Practices in Toronto,

Canada" (2017) 11 Human Geographies 5 at 7-8. https://doi.org/10.5719/hgeo.2017.111.1

287. See Mann, supra note 31; Le, supra note 46.

288. Collection of Identifying Information in Certain Circumstances - Prohibition and

Duties, O Reg 58/16.

289. See Nova Scotia Human Rights Commission, NS Human Rights Commission – Independent Legal Opinion on Street Checks, by J Michael MacDonald & Jennifer Taylor, File SM037082.00003 (Stewart McKelvey, 15 October 2019) at 70.

290. See Slobogin, supra note 118 at 809; Tanovich, "E-Racing," supra note 234 at 911.

291. See Skolnik, "Rééquilibrer le rôle," supra note 4.

292. See Rachel Moran, "Contesting Police Credibility" (2018) 93 Wash L Rev 1339 at 1341-42. 293. See Gabriel Chin & Scott Wells, "The 'Blue Wall of Silence' as Evidence of Bias and Motive to Lie: A New Approach to Police Perjury" (1998) 59 U Pitt L Rev 233 at 237.

294. See Tanovich, "Racial Profiling Correspondence Test," supra note 119 at 374-76; Kami

Chavis Simmons, "Body-Mounted Police Cameras: A Primer on Police Accountability vs.

Privacy" (2015) 58 How LJ 881 at 887.

295. See R v Dudhi, 2019 ONCA 665 at paras 77-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joms.2018.12.016

296. See Peart v Peel Regional Police Services, 2006 CanLII 37566 (Ont CA) at paras 110-11.

297. See Tanovich, "Racial Profiling Correspondence Test," supra note 119 at 374-76.

298. See Caren Myers Morrison, "Body Camera Obscura: The Semiotics of Police Video" (2017) 54 Am Crim L Rev 791 at 797.

299. See Mary D Fan, "Democratizing Proof: Pooling Public and Police Body-Camera Videos" (2018) 96 NCL Rev 1639 at 1662-63.

300. See Daniel S Lawrence & Bryce E Peterson, "How Do Body-Worn Cameras Affect the

Amount and Makeup of Police-Initiated Activities?: A Randomized Controlled Trial in

Milwaukee, Wisconsin" (2020) 16 J Experimental Criminology 481 at 495-96. Systematic reviews caution that there are too few studies that generate heterogenous findings regarding the effects of body-worn cameras on proactive police encounters. See Cynthia Lum et al, "Body-Worn Cameras' Effects on Police Officers and Citizen Behavior: A Systematic Review" (2020) 16 Campbell Systematic Reviews 1 at 23.

301. See Bibas, "Criminal Procedure," supra note 14 at 958.

302. See Howard M Wasserman, "Police Misconduct, Video Recording, and Procedural Barriers to Rights Enforcement" (2018) 96 NCL Rev 1313 at 1341. https://doi.org/10.12968/S1356-9252(22)40114-6

303. See Akwasi Owusu-Bempah & Scot Wortley, "Race, Crime, and Criminal Justice in Canada" in Sandra Bucerius & Michael Tonry, eds, The Oxford Handbook of Ethnicity, Crime, and Immigration (Oxford University Press, 2014) 281 at 287-89; Tanovich, "Racial Profiling Correspondence Test," supra note 119 at 173-78.

304. Ibid.

305. See Sharad Goel et al, "Combatting Police Discrimination in the Age of Big Data" (2017) 20 https://doi.org/10.1525/nclr.2017.20.2.181 New Crim L Rev 181 at 202-203.

306. See Jocelyn Simonson, "Police Reform Through a Power Lens" (2021) 130 Yale LJ 778 at 813-23 [Simonson, "Police Reform"] https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3731173.

307. See Skolnik, "Criminal Justice Reform," supra note 269 at 643.

308. On such police oversight measures, see Skolnik, "Racial Profiling," supra note 110 at 446-53. 309. See Friedman & Ponomarenko, supra note 141 at 1865-77.

310. See Rachel A Harmon, "The Problem of Policing" (2012) 110 Mich L Rev 761 at 812;

K Sabeel Rahman & Jocelyn Simonson, "The Institutional Design of Community Control" (2020) 108 Cal L Rev 679 at 701-702.

311. See Skolnik, "Rééquilibrer le rôle," supra note 4.

312. See Rahman & Simonson, supra note 310 at 701-702.

313. Ibid; Jocelyn Simonson, "The Place of 'the People' in Criminal Procedure" (2019) 119

Colum L Rev 249 at 265-66; Debra Livingston, "Police Discretion and the Quality of

Life in Public Places: Courts, Communities, and the New Policing" (1997) 97 Colum L

Rev 551 at 596. https://doi.org/10.2307/1123359

314. See Richard Parent & Catherine Parent, Ethics and Canadian Law Enforcement (Canadian Scholars, 2018) at 202; Kempe Ronald Hope Sr, "Civilian Oversight for Democratic Policing and its Challenges: Overcoming Obstacles for Improved Police Accountability" (2021) 16 J Applied Security Research 423 at 426-27 https://doi.org/10.1080/19361610.2020.1777807

Jack R Greene, "Make Police Oversight Independent and Transparent" (2007) 6 Crim & Public Policy 747 at 749-52. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9133.2007.00477.x

315. See e.g. Police Services Act, RSO 1990, c P.15, s 31(1).

316. See City of Toronto, "Toronto at a Glance" (last visited 26 February 2023), online: https://www.toronto.ca/city-government/data-research-maps/toronto-at-a-glance/

[perma. cc/W8CX-8RJP].

317. See House of Commons, "Current Members of Parliament" (last visited 26 February

2023), online: https://www.ourcommons.ca/members/en/search?province=ON [perma.cc/A77Y-KNJ5]; Legislative Assembly of Ontario, "MPP Contact Information" (last visited 26 February 2023), online: https://www.ola.org/en/members/current/contact-information [perma. cc/WK5G-DW9C].

318. See Toronto (City) v Ontario (Attorney General), 2019 ONCA 732.

319. See Toronto Police Services Board, "Board Members" (last visited 26 February 2023),

online: https://tpsb.ca/about/board-members [perma.cc/23DY-Q8UV]; Toronto Police Services Board, "Opportunities" (last visited 26 March 2023), online: https://secure.toronto.ca/pa/decisionBody/27.do [perma.cc/GVW8-SYUM].

320. See Toronto Police Service, "Consultative Committees" (last visited 26 February 2023),

online: https://www.tps.ca/organizational-chart/communities-neighbourhoods-command/field-services/community-partnerships-engagement-unit/consultative-committees/ [perma. cc/YA7Q-YPXG].

321. Ibid; Simonson, "Police Reform," supra note 306 at 814.

322. See Simonson, "Police Reform," supra note 306 at 814-15.

323. For an overview of these arguments, see Philip Stenning, "Police Chiefs and Their

Political Bosses: Discussions in Ontario" (2018) 15 Policing 150 at 157-58 [Stenning, https://doi.org/10.1093/police/pay062

"Police Chiefs"].

324. R v Beaudry, 2007 SCC 5 at para 48 [Beaudry].

325. R v Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis, Ex parte Blackburn, [1968] 2 WLR 893 at 902; Stenning, "Police Chiefs," supra note 323 at 157-58 (summarizing this position).

326. Police Services Act, supra note 315, s 31(4); Comprehensive Ontario Police Services Act, SO 2019, c 1, s 38 (the equivalent of section 31 of the former Police Services Act).

327. See Kent Roach, "Balancing Police Independence and Political Responsibility for the Police: Some Recent Developments in Australia, Canada, and the UK" (2020) 15 Policing 133 at 133-34 [Roach, "Balancing"].

328. See R v Bacon, 2020 BCCA 140 at paras 44-54; Beaudry, supra note 324 at paras 44-48; R v Campbell, [1999] 1 SCR 565 at paras 29, 32-33; R v Regan, 2002 SCC 12 at paras 64-66; Philip Stenning, "Governance of the Police: Independence, Accountability and

Interference" (2011) 13 Flinders LJ 241 at 251, 254. https://doi.org/10.1093/litimag/imr084

329. See Stenning, "Police Chiefs," supra note 323 at 329; Roach, "Balancing," supra note

327 at 138-39.

330. See Simonson, "Police Reform," supra note 306 at 811.

331. Tulloch, supra note 156 at 218, recommendation 12.13.

332. See Simonson, supra note 306 at 815.

333. Ibid.

334. See Police Services Act, supra note 315, s 31(1)(c); Toronto Police Services Board, "Process for Seeking Legislative Change" (19 February 2013), online: https://www.tpsb.ca/policies-by-laws/board-policies/172-process-for-seeking-legislative-change [perma.cc/L46U-YTEM].

335. See Beaudry, supra note 324 at para 45. See also R v Jageshur, 2002 CanLII 45116 (Ont CA) at paras 50-56.

336. See Bibas, "Plea Bargaining," supra note 206 at 2519; Paciocco, supra note 248 at 51-52. 337. Canada, Department of Justice Research and Statistics Division, Assessing the Effectiveness of Organized Crime Control Strategies: A Review of the Literature, by Thomas Gabor (Department of Justice Canada, 2005) at 37.

338. See Jay Albanese, Organized Crime in Our Times (Anderson, 2011) at 291.

339. See e.g. Jonathan Abel, "Cops and Pleas: Police Officers' Influence on Plea Bargaining"

(2017) 126 Yale LJ 1730 at 1732-33.

340. See Elizabeth Pollman & Jordan M Barry, "Regulatory Entrepreneurship" (2017) 90 S Cal L Rev 383 at 385-86.

341. See Roy Shapira, "Reputation through Litigation: How the Legal System Shapes Behavior by Producing Information" (2016) 91 Wash L Rev 1193 at 1237

Roy Shapira, "A Reputational Theory of Corporate Law" (2015) 26 Stan L & Pol'y Rev 1 at 13, 17, 41.

342. See Richard L Marcus, "The Discovery Confidentiality Controversy" [1991] U Ill L Rev 457 at 469.

343. See Dustin B Benham, "Tangled Incentives: Proportionality and the Market for Reputation Harm" (2018) 90 Temp L Rev 427 at 444-45. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000005015