Animal Rights Activism and the Constitution: Are Ag-Gag Laws Justifiable Limits?

Authors

Jodi Lazare, Schulich School of Law, Dalhousie University

Document Type

Article

Abstract

It is a troubling time to be an animal rights activist in Canada. Recently, Alberta adopted legislation to create harsh penalties for trespassing onto private property, for obtaining permission to enter private property based on false pretences, and for interfering with vehicles on public highways. These laws relate to agricultural lands, to private property generally, and, where roads are concerned, to public property. Ontario has adopted similar legislation aimed specifically at agricultural property. The legislation in both provinces purports to protect the security of farmers, their families, and rural property owners generally, as well as the safety of the food system, by preventing contamination of farmed animals by trespassers and those who would interfere with farmed animals in transport.

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 4.0 License.

Citation Information

Lazare, Jodi. "Animal Rights Activism and the Constitution: Are Ag-Gag Laws Justifiable Limits?." Osgoode Hall Law Journal 59.3 (2022) : 667-706.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.60082/2817-5069.3814
https://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/ohlj/vol59/iss3/4

References

1. Bill 27, Trespass Statutes (Protecting Law-Abiding Property Owners) Amendment Act, 2019, 1st Sess, 30th Leg, Alberta, 2019 (assented to 5 December 2019), SA 2019, c 23.

2. See Critical Infrastructure Defence Act, SA 2020, c C-32.7, s 2(3) [CIDA].

3. See Security from Trespass and Protecting Food Safety Act, 2020, SO 2020, c 9, s 5 [Security from Trespass Act].

4. Bill 62, The Animal Diseases Amendment Act, 3rd Sess, 42nd Leg, Manitoba, 2020 (assented to 20 May 2021), SM 2021, c 53 [Bill 62].

5. Security from Trespass Act, supra note 3, s 6(1).

6. Ibid, s 6(2).

7. See Jodi Lazare, "Ag-Gag Laws, Animal Rights Activism, and the Constitution: What is Protected Speech?" (2020) 58 Alta L Rev 83 at 84 (detailing a number of occupations and undercover investigations in Canada between 2014 and 2020). https://doi.org/10.29173/alr2611

8. Note that while the legislation may have been spurred by animal activism on private property, it is not limited in application to the agriculture industry in Alberta.

9. Animal Save Movement, "About Us" (n.d.), online: [perma.cc/LL6G-P362].

10. See Maneesha Deckha, "The Save Movement and Farmed Animal Suffering: The Advocacy Benefits of Bearing Witness as a Template for Law" (2019) 5 CJCCL 77; Anita Krajnc,

"Bearing Witness: Is Giving Thirsty Pigs Water Criminal Mischief or a Duty?" (2017)

23 Animal L 479.

11. Justin F Marceau, "Ag Gag Past, Present, and Future" (2015) 38 Seattle UL

Rev 1317 at 1319.

12. See ibid.

13. Ibid.

14. See e.g. Animal Legal Defense Fund v Wasden, 878 F (3d) 1184 (9th Cir 2018) [Wasden]; Animal Legal Defense Fund v Herbert, 263 F Supp (3d) 1193 at 1198 (D Utah 2017)

[Herbert]; Animal Legal Defense Fund v Reynolds, 353 F Supp (3d) 812 (SD Iowa

2019) [Reynolds].

15. Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (UK), 1982, c 11 [Charter].

16. See Lazare, supra note 7.

17. s 52(1), being Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (UK), 1982, c 11. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.part.10508

18. [1986] 1 SCR 103 [Oakes].

19. See e.g. Daphné Cameron, "Antispécisme: un groupe de travail pour empêcher d'autres infractions," La Presse (22 January 2020), online: [perma.cc/V9VQ-C9Y6?type=image]. The article discusses the creation of a Quebec governmental task force to study how other Canadian provinces are dealing with on-farm trespassers.

20. Jennifer Koshan, Lisa Silver & Jonette W Hamilton, "Protests Matter: A Charter Critique of Alberta's Bill 1" (9 June 2020), online (blog): ABlawg.ca [perma.cc/AQ6Y-2JCL]

Alberta, Legislative Assembly, Official Report of Debates (Hansard), 30-2 (26 February 2020) at 12

[Alberta Hansard (26 February 2020)].

21. See e.g. US, SF 2235, An Act relating to criminal acts committed on or against critical infrastructure and providing penalties, 87th Gen Assem, Reg Sess, Iowa, 2018 (enacted); US, HB 3557, An Act relating to civil and criminal liability for engaging in certain conduct involving a critical infrastructure facility; creating criminal offences, 86th Leg Assem, Reg Sess, Tex, 2019 (enacted); US, SB 2044, An Act to amend and reenact section 12.1-21-06 of the North Dakota Century Code, relating to tampering with or damaging a critical infrastructure facility or a public service; and to provide a penalty, 66th Leg Assem, Reg Sess, ND, 2019 (enacted).

22. See e.g. Sandra Laville & Johnathan Watts, "Across the Globe, Millions Join Biggest Climate Protest Ever," The Guardian (21 September 2019), online:

[perma.cc/U5E9-BMMD]; Somini Sengupta, "Protesting Climate Change, Young People Take to the Streets in a Global Strike," The New York Times (20 September 2019), online:

[perma.cc/ZQ83-XG94].

23. Sarah Berger Richardson, "Worked to the Bone: COVID-19, the Agrifood Labour Force, and the Need for More Compassionate Post-Pandemic Food Systems" in Colleen M Flood et al, eds, Vulnerable: The Law, Policy and Ethics of COVID-19 (University of Ottawa

Press, 2020) 501.

24. See e.g. Damian Carrington, "Coronavirus: World Treating Symptoms, Not Cause of Pandemics, says UN," The Guardian (6 July 2020), online: [perma.

cc/B7WZ-NBU5]; United Nations Environment Programme & International Livestock Research Institute, "Preventing the Next Pandemic: Zoonotic Diseases and How to Break the Chain of Transmission" (2020), online: [perma.cc/T33F-MLSH]; Silviu Petrova et al, "Post COVID-19: A Solution Scan of Options for Preventing Future Zoonotic Epidemics" (2020), online: OSF [perma.cc/D55X-GRZF].

25. See Romain Espinosa, Damian Tago & Nicolas Treich, "Infectious Diseases and Meat Production" (2020) 76 Environmental & Resource Economics 1019. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10640-020-00484-3

26. Núria Almiron, "Meat Taboo: Climate Change and the EU Meat Lobby" in Jason Hannan, ed, Meatsplaining: The Animal Agriculture Industry and the Rhetoric of Denial (Sydney University Press, 2020) 163 at 163. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv15tt7dr.11

27. See Kathryn Gillespie, The Cow With Ear Tag #1389 (University of Chicago Press, 2018) at 193 [Gillespie, #1389]. https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226582993.001.0001

28. See generally Trevor J Smith, "Corn, Cows, and Climate Change: How Federal Agriculture Subsidies Enable Factory Farming and Exacerbate U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions" (2019) 9 Washington J Environmental L & Policy 26

Heather McLeod-Kilmurray, "Does the Rule of Ecological Law Demand Veganism: Ecological Law, Interspecies Justice, and the Global Food System" (2019) 43 Vt L Rev 455.

29. Jessica Eisen, "Down on the Farm: Status, Exploitation, and Agricultural Exceptionalism" in Charlotte Blattner, Kendra Coulter & Will Kymlicka, eds, Animal Labour: A New Frontier of Interspecies Justice? (Oxford University Press, 2020) 139 at 143. For examples of Canadian agricultural exceptionalism in matters other than the treatment of animals, see also Laura Alford & Sarah Berger Richardson, "Right-to-Farm Legislation in Canada: Exceptional Protection for Standard Farm Practices" (2019) 50 Ottawa L Rev 131; Michael Trebilcock & Kristen Pue, "The Puzzle of Agricultural Exceptionalism in International Trade Policy" https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198846192.003.0007

(2015) 18 J Intl Econ L 233.

30. Eisen, supra note 29 at 142.

31. See Dunmore v Ontario (AG), 2001 SCC 94 at para 181 [Dunmore].

32. On a related note, a private member's bill currently making its way through Parliament would extend exemptions from the application of the carbon tax to fuels most frequently used by farmers. See Bill C-206, An Act to amend the Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act

(qualifying farming fuel), 1st Sess, 43rd Parl, 2020 (as passed by the House of Commons 23 June 2021, reinstated following the 2021 election).

33. Note, however, that Canadian ag-gag legislation is not limited to these jurisdictions. There is legislation effectively prohibiting roadside vigils and slaughterhouse protests in force in Manitoba. See Bill 62, supra note 4 (the wording of which mirrors the transport provisions of Ontario's law). Legislation has also been adopted in Prince Edward Island. See Bill No 120, An Act to Amend the Animal Health Act, 1st Sess, 66th Leg, PEI, 2020 (assented to 4 December 2020), RSPEI 2020, c 86

Bill No 124, An Act to Amend the Animal Welfare Act, 1st Sess, 66th Leg, PEI, 2020 (assented to 4 December 2020), RSPEI 2020, c 87. Prince Edward Island's legislation, while it indirectly limits animal rights activism on farms, may not be as constitutionally problematic from a Charter perspective as the statutes examined here, but it nevertheless singles out one industry for special protection. Combined, all these laws evince a growing legislative trend in Canada. I have chosen to focus on Alberta and Ontario as they were the first Canadian jurisdictions to adopt these kinds of laws and, in doing so, created serious offences with troubling consequences.

34. See supra note 1.

35. Ibid.

36. Alberta, Legislative Assembly, Official Report of Debates (Hansard), 30-1 (28 November 2019)[Alberta Hansard (28 November 2019)].

37. See the discussion in Part III, below, on the legislative objective.

38. Alta Reg 185/2019 [Biosecurity Regulation].

39. SA 2007, c A-40.2.

40. Biosecurity Regulation, supra note 38, s 2.

41. Ibid, s 4(1)(a).

42. Ibid, s 4(1)(b).

43. Ibid, s 1(1)(b).

44. Ibid, s 2(5).

45. Ibid, ss 1(1)(c), 2.

46. Supra note 2.

47. Alberta, Legislative Assembly, Official Report of Debates (Hansard), 30-2 (25 February 2020) at 4 (Hon Nathan M Cooper).

48. Supra note 2, s 2.

49. Ibid, s 1.

50. Alberta, Legislative Assembly, Official Report of Debates (Hansard), 30-2 (28 May 2020) at 869 (Hon Nathan M Cooper). See also CIDA, supra note 2.

51. Bill 156, An Act to protect Ontario's farms and farm animals from trespassers and other forms of interference and to prevent contamination of Ontario's food supply, 1st Sess, 42nd Leg, Ontario, 2020 (assented to 18 June 2020), SO 2020, c 9.

52. Ibid, s 5(2).

53. Ibid, s 2.

54. Ibid, s 6(1).

55. Ibid, s 6(2).

56. See R v Krajnc, 2017 ONCJ 281 at para 2 [Krajnc].

57. See O Reg 701/20 [Reg 701/20].

58. Ibid, s 9.

59. Ibid, s 10.

60. Ibid, s 11

61. Ibid, s 12(1)(c)-(d).

62. Marceau, supra note 11 at 1340.

63. Ibid at 1340-41.

64. Reg 701/20, supra note 57, s 11(1)(d).

65. See ibid, s 1; Ted Genoways, The Chain: Farm, Factory, and the Fate of Our Food (Harper Collins, 2014) at 135-43 (discussing the consequences of undercover investigations on individuals exposed as animal abusers).

66. See Lazare, supra note 7.

67. See Irwin Toy Ltd v Quebec (AG), [1989] 1 SCR 927 [Irwin Toy].

68. The underlying reasons are truth-telling, participation in political and democratic discourse, and individual self-fulfilment and human flourishing. See ibid at 976.

69. Supra note 10 at 83, citing Fuyuki Kurasawa, "A Message in a Bottle: Bearing Witness as a Mode of Transnational Practice" (2009) 26 Theory, Culture & Society 92 at 94. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263276408099017

70. See Kattenburg v Canada (AG), 2019 FC 1003

Marie-Claude Desjardins & Sabrina Tremblay-Huet, "The Consumers' Right to Information about Animal Welfare: The Canadian Framework for Labelling of Food Products of Animal Origin" in Heather McLeod-Kilmurray, Angela Lee & Nathalie Chalifour, eds, Food Law and Policy in Canada (Carswell, 2019) 287

Richard Moon, "Limits on Constitutional Rights: The Marginal Role of Proportionality Analysis" (2017) 50 Israel LR 49 at 54 ("Freedom of expression is instrumental to the realization of social goods such as public knowledge") https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021223716000327

[Moon, "Limits"].

71. Moon, "Limits," supra note 70 at 53. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-4332(93)90397-T

72. See Alan K Chen & Justin Marceau, "High Value Lies, Ugly Truths, and the First Amendment" (2015) 68 Vand L Rev 1435 at 1466, 1456-57 [Chen & Marceau,

"High Value Lies"].

73. Kathryn Gillespie, "Witnessing Animal Others: Bearing Witness, Grief, and the Political Function of Emotion" (2016) 31 Hypatia 572 at 576 (on the "politics of bearing witness"). See generally Gillespie, #1389, supra note 27. https://doi.org/10.1111/hypa.12261

74. Timothy Pachirat, Every Twelve Seconds: Industrialized Slaughter and the Politics of Sight (Yale University Press, 2011) at 15. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt5vm69m

75. See Lazare, supra note 7; Peter Sankoff, "Canada's Experiment with Industry Self-Regulation in Agriculture: Radical Innovation or Means of Insulation?" (2019) 5 CJCCL 299; Katie Sykes, "Rethinking the Application of the Canadian Criminal Law to Factory Farming" in Peter Sankoff, Vaughan Black & Katie Sykes, eds, Canadian Perspectives on Animals

and the Law (Irwin Law, 2015) 33

Lesli Bisgould, Animals and the Law (Irwin Law, 2011) at 197-200.

76. See Maureen Harper, "Legalized Cruelty: The Gaps in Canada's Animal Transport Laws," iPolitics (26 May 2017), online: [perma.cc/A7E2-RG8P]. Harper states:

In my opinion, Canada has the worst animal transport regulations amongst developed nations. This is based on current allowable maximum transport times for all animals. And unfortunately, the proposed changes will still leave Canada in this unenviable position. Canadians expect far more of their government with respect to protection of animal welfare, and our animals deserve far better (ibid).

77. See Deckha, supra note 10.

78. Lazare, supra note 7 at 102.

79. Chen & Marceau, "High Value Lies," supra note 72.

80. "Does Freedom of Expression Have a Future?" in Emmett MacFarlane, ed, Dilemmas of Free Expression (University of Toronto Press, 2021) 15 at 15. https://doi.org/10.3138/9781487529314-003

81. Moon, "Limits," supra note 70 at 58.

82. Supra note 18.

83. Sujit Choudhry, "So What Is the Real Legacy of Oakes? Two Decades of Proportionality Analysis under the Canadian Charter's Section 1" (2006) 34 SCLR 501 at 501. https://doi.org/10.60082/2563-8505.1107

84. Ibid at 503.

85. Ibid at 521.

86. See Moon, "Limits," supra note 70 at 58.

87. See R v Bryan, 2007 SCC 12 at para 10.

88. RJR-MacDonald Inc v Canada (AG), [1995] 3 SCR 199 at para 74 [RJR-MacDonald].

89. See Lazare, supra note 7.

90. In short, it does not. In Canada, the treatment of animals on farms is governed by

non-binding codes of practice, created primarily by the members of the agriculture industry and relevant stakeholders, such as fast food restaurants and grocery chains. See Sankoff, supra note 75; National Farm Animal Care Council, "Coordinating a National Approach to Farm Animal Welfare in Canada" (2022), online: [perma.cc/DNR4-QALP].

91. See e.g. Libman v Quebec (AG), [1997] 3 SCR 569 at paras 40-43; Harper v Canada

(AG), 2004 SCC 33 at paras 13-16, 25; Thomson Newspaper Co v Canada (AG), [1998] 1 SCR 877 at paras 24-26.

92. Choudhry, supra note 83 at 515.

93. Ibid at 512.

94. See RJR-MacDonald, supra note 88.

95. For an in-depth discussion of the varying levels of deference involved in judicial review of social policy, see Kent Roach, The Supreme Court on Trial: Judicial Activism or Democratic Dialogue, revised ed (Irwin Law, 2016).

96. Oakes, supra note 18 at 136, cited in Choudhry, supra note 83 at 506.

97. Choudhry, supra note 83 at 522 [emphasis in original].

98. RJR-MacDonald, supra note 88 at para 129.

99. Ibid at para 133.

100. See Moon, "Limits," supra note 70 at 57.

101. Ibid at 60. For a clear explanation of the purposes of protecting freedom of expression and what constitutes an appropriate reason to limit speech, see also Richard Moon, "What Happens When the Assumptions Underlying Our Commitment to Free Speech No Longer Hold?" (2019) 28 Const Forum Const 1. https://doi.org/10.21991/cf29373

102. See Moon, "Limits," supra note 70 at 57.

103. See Irwin Toy, supra note 67 at 973-75 (setting out the underlying purposes of the Charter's protection of freedom of expression).

104. Oakes, supra note 18 at 138-39.

105. Choudhry, supra note 83 at 505.

106. See ibid at 506.

107. Ibid at 509-10 [citations omitted].

108. Aharon Barak, "Proportional Effect: The Israeli Experience" (2007) 57 UTLJ 369 at 371. https://doi.org/10.1353/tlj.2007.0007

109. RJR-MacDonald, supra note 88 at para 133.

110. Choudhry, supra note 83 at 523.

111. But see R v Big M Drug Mart Ltd, [1985] 1 SCR 295 at 352; Canada Without Poverty v Canada (AG), 2018 ONSC 4147 at paras 64-65; CCLA v Ontario (AG), 2020 ONSC 4838 at para 69.

112. Alberta, Legislative Assembly, Official Report of Debates (Hansard), 30-1 (19 November 2019) at 2336 (Hon Nathan M Cooper).

113. Alberta Hansard (28 November 2019), supra note 36 at 2639.

114. See Alberta, Legislative Assembly, Official Reports of Debates (Hansard), 30-1 (26 November 2019) at 2578 (Hon Nathan M Cooper).

115. See Alberta, Legislative Assembly, Official Report of Debates (Hansard), 30-1 (25 November 2019) at 2524 [Alberta Hansard (25 November 2019)]. See also Alberta Hansard (28 November 2019), supra note 36 at 2639 (referring to the economic costs of biosecurity breaches).

116. Alberta Hansard (28 November 2019), supra note 36 at 2640.

117. Supra note 2.

118. See Kieran Leavitt, "'Not in our Backyard': Alberta Wet'suwet'en Rail Blockade Meets Stiff Opposition and Shuts Down After Injunction Granted," The Star (20 February 2020), online: [perma.cc/P5MZ-DPQQ?type=image]; Koshan, Silver & Hamilton, supra note 20; Matthew Black, "Alberta Bill Targeting Blockade Protesters Passed into Law," CTV News (17 June 2020), online: [perma.cc/K3SN-88VJ].

119. Alberta Hansard (26 February 2020), supra note 20 at 12.

120. Ibid at 15.

121. Ontario, Legislative Assembly, Official Report of Debates (Hansard), 42-1 (10 December 2019) at 6793 (Hon Ted Arnott) [Ontario Hansard (10 December 2019)].

122. Ibid at 6797.

123. Ibid at 6795.

124. Ibid.

125. Ibid. See also Ontario, Legislative Assembly, Official Report of Debates (Hansard), 42-1

(18 February 2020) at 6944 [Ontario Hansard (18 February 2020)] ("agriculture is the second-largest industry in Ontario, contributing $13.7 billion annually to Ontario's GDP and is essential for putting food on the tables of millions of people here and around the world" citing a motion from the township of Warwick in support of the legislation).

126. Ontario, Legislative Assembly, Official Report of Debates (Hansard), 42-1 (11 December 2019) at 6820 (Hon Ted Arnott).

127. Ontario Hansard (10 December 2019), supra note 121 at 6806.

bid at 6807.

129. Ibid. More about this absence of connection between the stated objectives and the impugned measure will be said in Part IV, below, in the context of the requirement for a rational connection.

130. Ontario Hansard (18 February 2020), supra note 125 at 6948.

131. Ibid at 6949.

132. See Wasden, supra note 14; Herbert, supra note 14; Reynolds, supra note 14.

133. Ontario Legislative Assembly, Hansard, 42nd Parl, 1st Sess (20 February 2020) at 7026

[Ontario Hansard (20 February 2020)].

134. Chen & Marceau, "High Value Lies," supra note 72 at 1470.

135. Choudhry, supra note 83 at 526.

136. Ibid at 528.

137. See e.g. Criminal Code, RSC 1985, c C-46, s 177

Trespass to Property Act, RSO 1991, c T.21.

138. Ontario Hansard (10 December 2019), supra note 121 at 6794.

139. Justin Marceau & Alan K Chen, "Free Speech and Democracy in the Video Age" (2016) 116 Colum L Rev 991 at 1055 [Marceau & Chen, "Free Speech"]. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2644551

140. In the interests of transparency, I should disclose that I, too, took part in this hearing, expressing a similar opinion as the one I outline here.

141. Ontario, Legislative Assembly, Standing Committee on General Government, "Security from Trespass and Protecting Food Safety Act, 2020," Official Report of Debates (Hansard), 42-1, No G-25 (8 June 2020) at G-625-26 [Ontario Hansard (8 June 2020)].

142. Marceau & Chen, "Free Speech," supra note 139 at 1054.

143. Choudhry, supra note 83 at 526.

144. See Krajnc, supra note 56 at paras 2-4.

145. See Security from Trespass Act, supra note 3, ss 6(1)-(3).

146. In any event, as Part IV, below, suggests, the limit on speech inherent in the prohibition on entering a facility under false pretences would not even apply to trespassers.

147. Ontario Hansard (8 June 2020), supra note 141 at G-626.

148. Gillespie, #1389, supra note 27 at 34.

149. Ibid at 35 [emphasis in original].

150. Ibid at 34. Descriptions of Canadian industrial agriculture echo Gillespie's observations. Referring to similar behaviour by employees on Canadian farms, one activist and experienced undercover investigator has described participants in the animal agriculture industry itself as the biggest threat to biosecurity. See Geoff Regier, "No Glass Walls: Ag Gag Laws in Canada" (Delivered at the Canadian Animal Law Conference 2020, 13 September 2020)

[unpublished] ("By far, the biggest threat to biosecurity is the industry itself-by far").

151. See Michael A Johnston, "Section 1 and the Oakes Test: A Critical Analysis" (2009) 26 NJCL 85 at 98

Honourable Marshall Rothstein, "Lecture Section 1: Justifying Breaches of Charter Rights and Freedoms" (2000) 27 Man LJ 171, n 10.

152. Irwin Toy, supra note 67 at 990.

153. For an example of "common sense" reasoning at section 1, see RJR-MacDonald, supra note 88 at para 158.

154. Charter, supra note 15, ss 2(b), 2(c).

155. Peter W Hogg, Constitutional Law of Canada, student ed (Thompson Reuters, 2015) at

38- 26 [Hogg, 2015].

156. Nicole E Negowetti, "Opening the Barnyard Door: Transparency and the Resurgence of Ag-Gag & Veggie Libel Laws" (2015) 38 Seattle UL Rev 1345 at 1378.

157. Note that there is no Hansard available for the regulations.

158. See e.g. Ontario Hansard (18 February 2020), supra note 125 at 6944

Paul Brockman & Yiuman Tse, "Information Shares in Canadian Agricultural Cash and Futures Markets" (1995) 2 Applied Economics Letters 335 at 355 (describing Canada as one of the largest agriculture-producers in the world). https://doi.org/10.1080/758518983

159. See Martha Jackman & Bruce Porter, "Socio-Economic Rights Under the Canadian Charter" (2007) Can Issues 26; Irwin Toy, supra note 67 at 1003-04 (finding that "corporate-commercial economic rights" are not protected by the Charter); Gosselin v Québec (AG), 2002 SCC 84.

160. See Reference Re Public Service Employees Relations Act, [1987] 1 SCR 313.

161. See Peter Hogg, Constitutional Law of Canada, 2nd ed (Carswell, 1985) at 745-56

Philip W Augustine, "Protection of the Right to Property under the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms" (1986) 18 Ottawa L Rev 55 at 67.

162. Dunmore, supra note 31 at para 181.

163. Ibid at para 52.

164. Ibid at para 53.

165. See Eisen, supra note 29.

166. "The Trilogy Strikes Back: Reconsidering Constitutional Protection for the Freedom to Strike" (2015) 45 Ottawa L Rev 201 at 228 [citations omitted].

167. Ibid at 229.

168. Dunmore, supra note 31 at para 52 ("Ontario is moving increasingly towards corporate farming and agribusiness").

169. See Heather McLeod-Kilmurray, "Commoditizing Nonhuman Animals and Their Consumers: Industrial Livestock Production, Animal Welfare, and Ecological Justice" (2012) 32 Bull Science, Technology & Society 71 [McLeod-Kilmurray, "Commoditizing"]. https://doi.org/10.1177/0270467612444585

170. See Aurora Moses & Paige Tomaselli, "Industrial Animal Agriculture in the United States: Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs)" in Gabriela Steier & Kiran K Patel, eds, International Farm Animal, Wildlife and Food Safety Law (Springer, 2017) 185 at 185 (documenting the "horrific institutionalized abuses" of animals on industrial farms as well as the "public health endangerment and environmental degradation" caused by CAFOs). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18002-1_6

171. Annette Aurélie Desmarais et al, "Land Grabbing and Land Concentration: Mapping Changing Patterns of Farmland Ownership in Three Rural Municipalities in Saskatchewan, Canada" (2015) 2 Can Food Studies 16 at 17. https://doi.org/10.15353/cfs-rcea.v2i1.52

172. Jerry Speir et al, "Comparative Standards for Intensive Livestock Operations in Canada, Mexico, and the United States" (Report prepared for the Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 4 February 2003) at xv.

173. See Alberta v Hutterian Brethren of Wilson Colony, 2009 SCC 37 at paras 39-40 [Hutterian Brethren].

174. Moon, "Limits," supra note 70 at 50.

175. Supra note 18 at 139.

176. See Hogg, 2015, supra note 155 at 38-34.1.

177. See ibid. The legislation under review in Oakes itself failed to meet the rational connection requirement. See also Greater Vancouver Transportation Authority v Canadian Federation

of Students - British Columbia Component, 2009 SCC 31

Saskatchewan (Human Rights Commission) v Whatcott, 2013 SCC 11.

178. [1988] 2 SCR 712 [Ford].

179. Choudhry, supra note 83 at 526, citing Ford, supra note 178 at 717.

180. Oxford English Dictionary, (Oxford University Press, 2020) sub verbo "trespass" ("enter someone's land or property without permission"); Irwin Law Canadian Online Legal Dictionary, (Irwin Law, 2020) sub verbo "trespass" ("to enter onto the lands of another, actionable without proof of injury" or "a term deriving from the ancient writ of trespass that provided a civil remedy for direct damage to person and property"), "trespass ab initio" ("a principle that deems a person who enters land as of right to be a trespasser from the moment of entry if they abuse or exceed their licence while on the property"). Pursuant to the latter definition, general trespass legislation may create a similar limit to speech by punishing entry onto a property where an individual "abuse[s] or [exceed[s] their license" (ibid), in other words, abuses their permission to enter. The difference between this kind of limit on speech and that inherent in ag-gag legislation is the targeted nature of the ag-gag restriction and the fact that the legislation contains a content-based restriction-that is, it has the clear purpose of restricting a particular message-and accordingly constitutes a clear prima facie infringement of section 2(b). See Irwin Toy, supra note 67 at 974 ("If the government's purpose is to restrict the content of expression by singling out particular meanings that are not to be conveyed, it necessarily limits the guarantee of free expression"). In any event, as explained, the Charter-infringing effect of the prohibition on entry on false pretences is not geared at, so-called, petty trespassers, but rather, at those who seek to gain regular entry to document ongoing and consistent cruel farming practices.

181. Ontario Hansard (8 June 2020), supra note 141 at G-625-26.

182. Recall that journalists are exempted from the false pretences provision in Ontario, but not in Alberta. See Bill 27, supra note 1. Even in Ontario, it is worth highlighting that journalists do not typically enter farms of their own accord, but rather, receive footage obtained through undercover tactics by animal rights organizations and advocates. See e.g. Chad Derrick,

"Undercover Footage from Ontario Pig Farm Shows Alleged Abuse but New Laws May Ban Future Probes," CTV News (28 November 2020), online (video): [perma.cc/GD6T-HZ35] (footage collected by Animal Justice and turned over to CTV)

CTV Staff, "'Horrific' Abuse of Cows at BC Dairy Farm Caught on Video," CTV News (9 June 2014), online (video): [perma.cc/Q48Q-MJ79] (footage collected by Mercy For Animals and turned over to CTV). This practice demonstrates

the difficulties with drawing boundaries between so-called traditional journalism, whistleblowing, and advocacy, as well as the necessary connections between them.

183. For American examples, see Chen & Marceau, "High Value Lies," supra note 72 at 1466. For a Canadian example, see Postmedia News, "Undercover Investigation Reveals Horrific Cruelty at B.C. Dairy Farm, SPCA Recommending Charges," National Post (10 June 2014), online: [perma.cc/3FYB-B8CQ].

184. See Marceau, supra note 11.

185. See Wasden, supra note 14.

186. Choudhry, supra note 83 at 526.

187. Reynolds, supra note 14 at 825.

188. See Herbert, supra note 14 at 1213.

189. See Krajnc, supra note 56.

190. See ibid.

191. Ibid at para 58.

192. Ibid at paras 66-74 [emphasis in original].

193. See Ontario Hansard (20 February 2020), supra note 133 at 7026.

194. Ontario Hansard (8 June 2020), supra note 141 at G-600.

195. See JA Robbins, DM Weary & MAG von Keyserlingk, "'Ag-gag' Laws Increase Negative Perceptions of Farm Animal Welfare and Decrease Trust in Farmers" in Diana Elena Dumitras, Ionel Mugurel Jitea & Stef Aerts, eds, Know Your Food: Food Ethics and Innovation (Wageningen Academic, 2015) 297 https://doi.org/10.3920/978-90-8686-813-1_44

JA Robbins et al, "Awareness of Ag-gag Laws Erodes Trust in Farmers and Increases Support for Animal Welfare Regulations" (2016) 61 Food Policy 121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2016.02.008

196. See Ontario Hansard (20 February 2020), supra note 133 at 7026 ("A 2016 study from the UBC found that when the public learns of so-called ag gag laws, it erodes trust in the farmers and increases support for animal welfare regulations").

197. Hogg, 2015, supra note 155 at 38-36. https://doi.org/10.12968/prma.2015.25.7.38

198. Choudhry, supra note 83 at 507 [citations omitted].

199. Ibid at 511, citing Irwin Toy, supra note 67 at 994.

200. See Choudhry, supra note 83 at 515.

201. Hogg, 2015, supra note 155 at 38-36. https://doi.org/10.12968/prma.2015.25.7.38

202. See Alberta Hansard (25 November 2019), supra note 115 at 2523-24; Ontario Hansard

(10 December 2019), supra note 121 at 6801.

203. See RJR-MacDonald, supra note 88 at para 160 ("If the law falls within a range of reasonable alternatives, the courts will not find it overbroad merely because they can conceive of an alternative which might better tailor objective to infringement"); Hutterian Brethren, supra note 173 at para 54.

204. An Act to amend the Health of Animals Act, 1st Sess, 43rd Parl, 2020.

205. Ibid, s 1. Interestingly, Bill C-205 was originally aimed only at people without lawful authority to be on a farm (i.e., trespassers), and prohibited the introduction of contaminants only by that category of individuals. At Second Reading, the Bill was amended by the Standing Committee on Agriculture and Agri-Food to apply to any individual who introduces a risk of disease to animals, in recognition of evidence that trespassers (i.e., animal rights activists) have never been responsible for a disease outbreak, and that outbreaks are far more likely to result from industry practices. See House of Commons, Standing Committee on Agriculture and Agri-Food, 2nd Sess, 43rd Parl, No 40 (17 June 2021). Again, in the interests of transparency, I participated in this process as well.

206. This is not an endorsement of the policy rationale for Bill C-205, which, based on the relevant debates and the Bill's original form, was clearly aimed at restricting animal rights activism. It is merely an example of a less impairing way of achieving a similar objective.

207. See Reg 701/20, supra note 57, ss 11, 12.

208. Ibid, s 12.

209. Ibid, s 11(1)(a).

210. Ibid, s 1.

211. Security from Trespass Act, supra note 3, ss 5(4), 6(1), 6(2).

212. Reg 701/20, supra note 57, s 5.

213. Hogg, 2015, supra note 155 at 38-43. https://doi.org/10.12968/prma.2015.25.7.38

214. For the idea that this part of the test is unnecessary and "redundant," see ibid at 38-44.

215. Hutterian Brethren, supra note 173 at para 76.

216. Ibid [citations omitted].

217. 2015, supra note 155 at 38-44. https://doi.org/10.1353/mis.2015.0052

218. Hutterian Brethren, supra note 173 at para 89.

219. Chen & Marceau, "High Value Lies," supra note 72 at 1507.

220. Hutterian Brethren, supra note 173 at para 88.

221. See Harold A Herzog Jr, "'The Movement is My Life': The Psychology of Animal Rights Activism" (1993) 49 J Soc Issues 103; Donna D Page, "Veganism and Sincerely Held https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1993.tb00911.x

'Religious' Beliefs in the Workplace: No Protection without Definition" (2005) 7 U Pa J Lab & Employment L 363

Bruce Friedrich, "The Church of Animal Liberation: Animal Rights as 'Religion' under the Free Exercise Clause" (2014) 21 Animal L 65. Contra Jan Dutkiewicz & Jonathan Dickstein, "The Ism in Veganism: The Case for a Minimal Practice-based Definition" (2021) 6 Food Ethics 1. There is a need for further research on the connection between freedom of conscience and religion as interpreted in Canada and animal rights activism, and the related question of whether Canadian ag-gag laws constitute a restriction on the section 2(a) Charter guarantee of freedom of conscience, as something distinct from religious freedom. For present purposes, however, there is literature suggesting that limits on the right to participate in animal rights activism and to express one's ethical and political commitments regarding animals do impact the liberty and dignity of those who espouse these commitments.

222. On the appropriateness of using the word "violence" to describe the regular practices of industrial farming, see Gillespie, #1389, supra note 27 at 21 (describing how "violence against certain lives and bodies can become so normalized that it is not viewed as violence at all").

223. See Hutterian Brethren, supra note 173 at para 163, LeBel J, dissenting.

224. Ibid at para 167.

225. See Marceau, supra note 11.

226. See US, HFF 655, A Bill for an Act Prohibiting Interference with the Transportation

of an Agricultural Animal, and Providing Penalties, 89th Gen Assem, Reg Sess, Iowa,

2021 (enacted).

227. See Lazare, supra note 7.

228. See Marceau, supra note 11.

229. See e.g. Léonid Sirota, "Compelled Speech: A Conscience- and Integrity-Based Approach" in MacFarlane, supra note 80, 151 at 156 ("To be sure, [the Supreme Court of the United States] is generally more solicitous of the freedom of expression than Canadian courts are").

230. Janet L Hiebert, Limiting Rights: The Dilemma of Judicial Review (McGill-Queen's University Press, 1996) at 52 [emphasis added]. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780773566163

231. Supra note 95 at 384 [emphasis added].

232. Hiebert, supra note 230 at 79.

233. Ibid.

234. See Adam Knauff, "Human Rights Tribunal of Ontario (Application Schedule A)"

(29 May 2018), online: www.canadianlawyermag.com/staticcontent/AttachedDocs/Adam%20Knauff.pdf [perma.cc/27ND-GMCJ]; Casamitjana v The League Against Cruel Sports (3 February 2020), No 3331129/2018, online: UK Employment Tribunals [perma.cc/M56E-2U2A].

235. Alford & Berger Richardson, supra note 29 at 149.

236. See McLeod-Kilmurray, "Commoditizing," supra note 169.

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