The Webbing of Public Law: Looking Through Deportation Doctrine

Authors

Asha Kaushal, Peter A. Allard School of Law, University of British Columbia

Document Type

Article

Abstract

The process of deporting non-citizens is subject to judicial review under several fields of public law. These fields—criminal law, constitutional law, and administrative law—arc towards the protection of the individual. And yet, a series of judicial interpretations place deportees on the margins of that otherwise protective arc. This marginalization is principally explained by the relationships between the fields: The “webbing” of public law joins the fields of criminal law, constitutional law, and administrative law together. Reading deportation cases laterally across these fields reveals that they function as mutual referents for one another, providing assurance that some other field will offer legal cover for the deportee, and buttressing the persistent divide between immigration law and other fields of public law. After examining the webbing as an intervening register in public law theory and practice, the article explores the judicial doctrine of deportation in each field and traces the content of the webbing between them.

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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 4.0 License.

Citation Information

Kaushal, Asha. "The Webbing of Public Law: Looking Through Deportation Doctrine." Osgoode Hall Law Journal 59.2 (2022) : 291-337.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.60082/2817-5069.3780
https://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/ohlj/vol59/iss2/2

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4. Ibid at 15.

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7. Moretto v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration), 2018 FC 71, aff'd 2019 FCA 261, leave to appeal to SCC refused, 38964 (2 April 2020) [Moretto]; Revell v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), 2017 FC 905, aff'd 2019 FCA 262, leave to appeal to SCC refused, 38891 (2 April 2020) [Revell]; Kreishan v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), 2018 FC 481, aff'd 2019 FCA 223, leave to appeal to SCC refused, 30714 (19 August 2019) [Kreishan].

8. See Febles v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration), 2014 SCC 68 [Febles]

B010 v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration), 2015 SCC 58 [B010] (on remedies)

Agraira v Canada(Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness), 2013 SCC 36

Kanthasamy v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration), 2015 SCC 61 [Kanthasamy] (discussing standard of review and the role of the certified question).

9. R v Pham, 2013 SCC 15 [Pham]; Tran v Canada (Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness), 2017 SCC 50 [Tran]; R v Wong, 2018 SCC 25 [Wong].

10. Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration) v Chiarelli, [1992] 1 SCR 711 at

735 [Chiarelli].

11. Kreishan, supra note 7; Revell, supra note 7; Moretto, supra note 7.

12. Martin Loughlin, "The Nature of Public Law" in Cormac Mac Amhlaigh, Cláudio Michelon & Neil Walker, eds, After Public Law (Oxford University Press, 2013) 11 at 11.

13. This article focuses on criminal, constitutional, and administrative law as the fields that operate inside the public law state-the ones that courts apply when judicially reviewing deportation. International human rights law plays a role, but it has not generated much traction in the deportation context. See Dauvergne, "Charter Failure," supra note 5.

14. See e.g. the work of David Dyzenhaus, Mary Liston, and Evan Fox-Decent.

15. James Tully, as quoted in Emilios Christodoulidis & Stephen Tierney, eds, Public Law and Politics: The Scope and Limits of Constitutionalism (Routledge, 2008) at 69 [Christodoulidis & Tierney, Public Law and Politics].

16. Ibid at 1 (describing Loughlin's account).

17. See e.g. Vicki Jackson, "Paradigms of Public Law: Transnational Constitutional Values and Democratic Challenges" (2010) 8 ICON 517 https://doi.org/10.1093/icon/moq031

Mattias Kumm, "The Cosmopolitan Turn in Constitutionalism: On the Relationship between Constitutionalism in and beyond the State" in Jeffrey L Dunoff & Joel P Trachtman, eds, Ruling the World? Constitutionalism, International Law, and Global Governance (Cambridge University Press, 2009) 258. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511627088.011

18. "Introduction" in Mac Amhlaigh, Michelon & Walker, supra note 12, 1 at 1

[emphasis in original].

19. Emilios Christodoulidis & Stephen Tierney, "Public Law and Politics: Rethinking the Debate" [Christodoulidis & Tierney, "Rethinking"] in Christodoulidis & Tierney, Public Law and Politics, supra note 15, 1 at 4 (describing Martin Loughlin's chapter, "Reflections on The Idea of Public Law").

20. Methodology analysis [on file with the author]. The methodology, in brief, consisted of searching legal databases for various combinations of terms (e.g., "deportation and liberty" and "removal and procedural fairness"), reviewing them, and coding the results.

21. I am grateful to Mary Liston for this understanding of the regulatory state.

22. Mahler v Eby, 264 US 32 (1924) https://doi.org/10.1086/253595

Harisiades v Shaughnessy, 342 US 580 (1952), upheld in Reno v American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee, 525 US 471 (1999), Scalia J.

23. Reference re Effect of Exercise of Royal Prerogative of Mercy Upon Deportation Proceedings,

[1933] SCR 269 at 278 [Royal Prerogative of Mercy]. For a longer historical view, see William Walters, "Deportation, Expulsion, and the International Police of Aliens" (2002) 6 Citizenship Studies 267

Audrey Macklin, "Citizenship Revocation, the Privilege to Have Rights, and the Production of the Alien" (2014) 40 Queen's LJ 1 (discussing banishment). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2507786

24. Stumpf, supra note 6; Kanstroom, "Hard Laws," supra note 2. There is a large body of scholarship concerning the plenary power doctrine in the United States, which governs, inter alia, the relationship between deportation and the Constitution. While that scholarship informed the trajectory of this article, this article is concerned with the Canadian contours of deportation and, in criminal and penal contexts, with the concept of punishment.

25. Royal Prerogative of Mercy, supra note 23 at 269; Immigration Act, RSC 1927, c 93.

26. Royal Prerogative of Mercy, supra note 23 at 278 [emphasis added].

27. Supreme Court Act, RSC 1906, c 139, s 36.

28. Lee v The King, [1926] SCR 652 at 654.

29. Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, ss 8-9, 11, Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (UK), 1982, c 11 [Charter].

30. Chiarelli, supra note 10, citing Hoang v Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration)(1990), 13 Imm LR (2d) 35 (FCA) at 41 (stating that "deportation…is not to be conceptualized as a deprivation of liberty or punishment")

Hurd v Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration), [1988] FCJ No 945 (FCA). For the most recent iteration, see Tran v Canada (Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness), 2017 SCC 50 [Tran]. For punishment under security of the person, see Singh v Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration), [1985] 1 SCR 177 at 207 [Singh].

31. Chiarelli, supra note 10 at 715.

32. Rodriguez v British Columbia (Attorney General), [1993] 3 SCR 519 at 610 [Rodriguez].

33. Ibid.

34. For case law showing that section 12 plays no significant role outside of the refugee context, and that section 12 claims are typically precluded by a risk assessment, see Canepa v Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration), [1992] 3 FC 270; Barrera v Canada (Minister of Employment & Immigration), [1992] FCJ No 1127; Sinnappu v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), [1997] 2 FC 791 (dismissed for mootness); Arduengo v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), [1997] 3 FC 468; Mohammed v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), [1997] 3 FC 299; Solis v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), [2000] FCJ No 407, leave to appeal to SCC refused, [2000] SCCA No 249.

35. Benjamin Berger, "Constitutional Principles" in Markus D Dubber & Tatjana Hörnle, eds, The Oxford Handbook of Criminal Law (Oxford University Press, 2014) 423 at 423.

36. Charter, supra note 29, ss 7-14.

37. R v Swain, [1991] 1 SCR 933 at 1008-1013 [Swain]. Section 7 is examined in the next Part.

38. Stumpf, supra note 6 at 378 (describing the United States but Canada has followed a similar trajectory).

39. "Hard Laws," supra note 2 at 1893-94.

40. Ibid at 1894.

41. "Introduction: 'Crimmigration, Surveillance and Security Threats': A Multidisciplinary Dialogue" (2014) 40 Queen's LJ i at iii.

42. César García Hernández, "Deconstructing Crimmigration" (2018) 52 UC Davis L https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3326202

Rev 197 at 210.

43. See Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, SC 2001, c 27, ss 36-37 [IRPA] (among

other provisions).

44. Ibid, ss 68(4), 34-37, read in conjunction with Immigration and Refugee Protection Regulations, SOR/2002-227, ss 227-29 [IRPR].

45. IRPA, supra note 43, ss 117-29. Section 124 is the catch-all provision. Some of these provisions appear in the Criminal Code, RSC 1985, c C-46. See IRPA, supra note 43, ss 183 (human trafficking, counselling misrepresentation), 279.03 (document destruction). While these provisions are comparatively rarely used, their potential application is vast.

46. IRPA, supra note 43, ss 54-87; IRPR, supra note 44, ss 223-51. See also Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada, ENF 10 Removals (IRCC, 24 February 2017), s 10, online (pdf): www.canada.ca/content/dam/ircc/migration/ircc/english/resources/manuals/enf/enf10-eng.pdf [ENF 10].

47. Canada (Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness) v Chhina, 2019 SCC 29 [Chhina].

48. "Preface" in Katja Franko Aas & Mary Bosworth, eds, The Borders of Punishment: Migration, Citizenship, and Social Exclusion (Oxford University Press, 2013) vii.

49. Pham, supra note 9.

50. Ibid at para 10.

51. Ibid at para 12; Allan Manson, The Law of Sentencing (Irwin Law, 2001) at 137.

52. Pham, supra note 9 at para 16.

53. Tran, supra note 9.

54. Ibid at para 41.

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid at paras 41-42.

57. Ibid at para 43.

58. Wong, supra note 9.

59. Inadmissibility followed under IRPA, supra note 43, s 36(1). Removal of appeal followed under IRPA, supra note 43, s 64(1).

60. Wong, supra note 9 at para 11.

61. Ibid at paras 38-39 (the majority refused to draw an inference from the fact that Wong had taken his case all the way to the Supreme Court, which for many advocates clearly signalled that he would not have pleaded guilty if he had known of the immigration consequences).

62. Ibid at para 43.

63. Ibid at para 68.

64. Ibid at para 103.

65. Bridget Anderson, Matthew J Gibney & Emanuela Paoletti, "Citizenship, Deportation and the Boundaries of Belonging" (2011) 15 Citizenship Studies 549 https://doi.org/10.1080/13621025.2011.583787

Matthew J Gibney, "Is Deportation a Form of Forced Migration?" (2013) 32 Refugee Survey Q 119. https://doi.org/10.1093/rsq/hdt003

66. Wong, supra note 9 at para 106, Wagner J (stating "I do not accept that a reasonable person would necessarily plead guilty when faced with a strong chance of conviction at trial, even in light of the fact that a guilty plea would operate as a mitigating factor at sentencing").

67. Nicholas De Genova & Nathalie Peutz, eds, The Deportation Regime: Sovereignty, Space, and the Freedom of Movement (Duke University Press, 2010). https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv120qtc1

68. Section 12 of the Charter is also important in deportation matters, due to judicial openness to consideration of deportation as "treatment." Charter, supra note 29, s 12. I discuss section 12 where applicable.

69. According to a CanLII search, section 7 has been cited in 13,136 cases as of 7 April 2022, making it the most cited section of the Charter.

70. Charter, supra note 29, s 7.

71. Both of the harms that violate security include the threat thereof. See Evan Fox-Decent & Alexander Pless, "The Charter and Administrative Law Part I: Procedural Fairness" [Fox-Decent & Pless, "Charter"] in Colleen M Flood & Lorne Sossin, eds, Administrative Law in Context, 3rd ed (Emond Montgomery, 2018) 237 at 239 [Flood & Sossin 2018]; Carter v Canada (AG), 2015 SCC 5 at paras 62-64.

72. [1985] 2 SCR 486 at 502 [Motor Vehicle Reference].

73. Fox-Decent & Pless, "Charter," supra note 71 at 239, n 7; Swain, supra note

37 at 1008-1013.

74. Febles, supra note 8; B010, supra note 8.

75. Singh, supra note 30 at 202; Dauvergne, "Charter Failure," supra note 5 at 668.

76. Ibid at 674 (discussing Singh as the "high-water mark"); Grey, supra note 5 (discussing Supreme Court and Federal Court interpretations of section 7 which curtail Singh's promise).

77. The Chiarelli case and its progeny are the subjects of sustained scholarly analysis. See Heckman, supra note 5; Dauvergne, "Charter Failure," supra note 5; Audrey Macklin, "The Inside-Out Constitution" in Jacco Bomhoff, David Dyzenhaus & Thomas Poole, eds, The Double-Facing Constitution (Cambridge University Press, 2020) 243; Asha Kaushal, "The Constitution in the Shadow of the Immigration State" in Bomhoff, Dyzenhaus & Poole, supra note 77, 277; Joshua Blum, "The Chiarelli Doctrine: Immigration Exceptionalism and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms" 54 UBC L Rev [forthcoming]; Jamie Liew & Donald Galloway, Immigration Law, 2nd ed (Irwin Law, 2015); Hamish Stewart, Fundamental Justice: Section 7 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (Irwin Law, 2007); Ninette Kelley, "Rights in the Balance: Non-Citizens and State Sovereignty Under the Charter" [Kelley, "Balance"] in Dyzenhaus, supra note 5, 253; R v Appulonappa, 2015 SCC 59 [Appulonappa]; B010, supra note 8. See especially Grey, supra note 5.

78. Chiarelli, supra note 10 at 731-32.

79. 2002 SCC 1 [Suresh].

80. Kelley, "Balance," supra note 77 at 279; Dauvergne, "Charter Failure," supra note 5 at 690.

81. Medovarski v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), 2005 SCC 51 at para 46 [emphasis added] [Medovarski]. Others have made compelling arguments about the misreading of Chiarelli and the ill-founded standards of engagement that underwrite section 7 reasoning. See Heckman, supra note 5; Jamie & Galloway, supra note 77; Stewart, supra note 77.

82. 2007 SCC 9 at para 17 [Charkaoui].

83. Poshteh v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), 2005 FCA 85 at para 63. This is well-examined by Heckman, supra note 5.

84. Grey, supra note 5; Heckman, supra note 5.

85. Grey, supra note 5.

86. Supra note 8. Other authors have discussed the history of prematurity. See Heckman, supra note 5 at 347; Grey, supra note 5.

87. Febles, supra note 8; Grey, supra note 5 at 122.

88. B010, supra note 8 at para 75; Grey, supra note 5 at 121.

89. Ibid.

90. Heckman, supra note 5 at 314; Stewart, supra note 77.

91. Heckman, supra note 5 at 351.

92. Motor Vehicle Reference, supra note 72.

93. Suresh, supra note 79 at para 113.

94. Revell, supra note 7 at para 211. See also Powell v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration), 2004 FC 1120 at para 30 [Powell]; Stables v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), 2011 FC 1319 at para 56 [Stables]; Torre v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), 2015 FC 591, aff'd 2016 FCA 48, leave to appeal to SCC refused, 36936 (25 August 2016) [Torre]; Brar v Canada (Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness), 2016 FC 1214 [Brar].

95. Powell, supra note 94 at para 28.

96. See e.g. Moretto, supra note 7 at paras 59-66; Stables, supra note 94.

97. IRPA, supra note 43, ss 34-42.

98. Ibid, ss 44(1)-(2).

99. There is also a gap between the s 44 report (which may not correspond to the removal order in force) and enforceability.

100. IRPA, supra note 43, ss 48-49.

101. IRPR, supra note 44, s 239. Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA) data obtained through Access to Information and Privacy Act ("ATIP") requests showed that actual removals most frequently involve departure orders converted into deportation orders because the individual did not depart (ATIP responses, on file with author).

102. This is available only to a small category of people, mostly permanent residents, and not those with a serious inadmissibility. See IRPA, supra note 43, ss 63-65.

103. There are judicial stays, statutory stays, and regulatory stays. See IRPA, supra note 43,

s 50. For a judicial stay, the applicant must have an underlying application for leave for judicial review.

104. ENF 10, supra note 46, s 25.3. If a removals officer decides the individual is not eligible, then the recourse is to judicially review that decision. This is determined by officers in accordance with IRPA, supra note 43, s 112(2). See also generally ENF 10, supra note 46, s 25.

105. IRPA, supra note 43, s 25. See also Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada, "Guide 5291 - Humanitarian and Compassionate Considerations" (last modified 6 June 2021), online: Government of Canada https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/application/application-forms-guides/guide-5291-humanitarian-compassionate-considerations.html [Guide 5291].

106. See IRPA, supra note 43, ss 25 (H&C), 112 (PRRA), 24 (TRP).

107. A refugee claimant receives a conditional removal order that comes into force if their claim is found ineligible, rejected, withdrawn, abandoned, or terminated. See IRPA, supra note 43, s 49(2).

108. IRPA, supra note 43, ss 112(2)(b.1)-(c) (the PRRA "bar").

109. Kreishan, supra note 7. Refugee claims are heard by the Refugee Protection Division (RPD) and may generally be appealed to the Refugee Appeal Division (RAD). However, certain exceptional categories of refugee claimants under the Safe Third Country Agreement (STCA) do not have a right to appeal to the RAD. The right of appeal for STCA-excepted claimants was the crux of the issue in Kreishan.

110. Kreishan, supra note 7 at paras 113, 117.

111. Ibid at para 117.

112. Ibid at para 122.

113. Ibid at para 127.

114. Moretto, supra note 7; Revell, supra note 7.

115. Moretto also challenged his deportation under section 2(d) of the Charter. See Moretto, supra note 7.

116. Revell, supra note 7 at paras 14-27.

117. Ibid at para 35.

118. 2013 SCC 72.

119. Revell, supra note 7 at para 45.

120. Ibid.

121. Ibid.

122. Ibid at para 97.

123. Ibid at paras 46-52.

124. Ibid at para 51.

125. Ibid at paras 115-16 (referring to IRPA, supra note 43, ss 36(1)(a) and 37(1)(a)).

126. Revell, supra note 7 at para 55.

127. Ibid.

128. Ibid.

129. Ibid at para 56.

130. Ibid at para 66 (Revell argued his section 7 interests were engaged because of the sufficiently serious consequences of deportation and because the psychological harm of deportation was "a feature associated with deportation" per Charkaoui, supra note 82).

131. Suresh, supra note 79.

132. Motor Vehicle Reference, supra note 72.

133. Powell, supra note 94 at para 30.

134. See e.g. Stables, supra note 94 at para 56, de Montigny J (s 44 report submissions, ID hearing, PRRA, and judicial review); Torre, supra note 94 at paras 74-75 (PRRA, IRPA s 42.1 exemption, and judicial review); Brar, supra note 94 at paras 27-28 (s 44 submissions and Minister's Delegate weighing H&C factors).

135. Moretto, supra note 7 at para 3.

136. The IAD decision to lift the stay also cancelled his access to appeal.

137. Moretto, supra note 7.

138. Ibid at para 42.

139. Ibid at para 44.

140. Ibid at para 59.

141. Ibid at para 61 (s 44 referral process, H&C application, PRRA, and deferral removal prevent overbreadth), 62-64 (s 44 referral process, ID and IAD hearings, and judicial review provide individual assessment), 65 (H&C application, TRP, PRRA, and deferred removal prevent gross disproportionality and overbreadth).

142. Ibid at para 65.

143. Moretto, supra note 7 at para 36; Revell, supra note 7 at para 31.

144. Revell, supra note 7 at paras 30-34; Moretto, supra note 7 at para 36.

145. Revell, supra note 7 at para 54. See also Tran, supra note 9 at para 43; Chiarelli, supra note 10.

146. Revell, supra note 7 at para 125.

147. This was argued by Revell and dismissed by the Federal Court. See ibid at para 112.

148. See Sharryn J Aiken et al, Immigration and Refugee Law: Cases, Materials, and Commentary, 3rd ed (Emond, 2020) at 130.

149. Federal Courts Act, RSC 1985, c F-7, s 17(1). See Craig Forcese, "Making a Federal Case Out of It: The Federal Court and Administrative Law" in Flood & Sossin 2018, supra note 71, 553 at 557 (confirming that administrative cases based on issues of constitutionality may be brought in either section 96 provincial superior courts or federal courts).

150. Chhina, supra note 47 at para 17. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0099-2399(07)80172-5

151. Only 18.6% of immigration proceedings commenced at the Federal Court between 2010 and 2019 obtained leave for judicial review (14,586 of 78,250). See "Statistics" (last visited 18 June 2020), online: Federal Court https://www.fct-cf.gc.ca/en/pages/about-the-court/reports-and-statistics/statistics. The FC has certified 157 questions in that time span or on average 16 per year. See "Certified Questions (Immigration/Citizenship)" (last visited 18 June 2020), online: Federal Court .

152. This has happened with respect to calculating residency for citizenship, the test for a genuine marriage, and the standard of review for certified questions. See also David Stratas, "The Canadian Law of Judicial Review: A Plea for Doctrinal Coherence and Consistency" (2016) 42 Queen's LJ 27.

153. Audrey Macklin, "Citizenship, Non-Citizenship and the Rule of Law" (2018) 69 UNBLJ 19 at 25 (observing that discretion is "always bounded and informed by law" and including international law). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3666111

154. Singh, supra note 30 at 212 ("the concept of 'fundamental justice' as it appears in s 7 of the Charter includes the notion of procedural fairness"); Suresh, supra note 79 at para 113 (incorporating Baker on common law procedural fairness). In the refugee context, procedural fairness has required the right to an oral hearing (Singh) and higher requirements prior to removal to counter the risk inherent in deporting refugee claimants. See Singh, supra note 30 at 213-16; Suresh, supra note 79 at paras 115-23. This section does not address either the issue of Charter values, which have not achieved traction in deportation, or tribunals' authorities to decide constitutional questions. On the latter, see Revell, supra note 7.

155. I use the term "administrative fairness," following Heckman, supra note 5.

156. Seklani v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration), 2020 FC 778 at paras 29-30; Begum v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration), 2017 FC 409 at paras 107, 113 (on safeguards), 111 (on safety valves). See also Revell, supra note 7 at paras 52, 115-17; Moretto, supra note 7 at paras 59, 65; Stables, supra note 94 at para 56 (on safety valves).

157. Immigration decisions typically involve two government departments (Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC) and Canadian Border Services Agency (CBSA)) and sometimes three (Employment and Social Development Canada (ESDC)); immigration decision makers include officers (both overseas and in Canada), tribunals, and courts.

158. See Canada, Department of Manpower and Immigration, Canadian Immigration Policy, 1966: White Paper on Immigration (Queen's Printer, 1966) at para 84 ("the procedures leading to an order of deportation…are inseparable from any law enforcement activity").

159. IRPA, supra note 43, s 6(1)-(3). Section 6(3) refers to particular decisions that the Minister may not delegate (i.e., powers conferred under ss 20.1, 22.1, 42.1, 77(1)).

160. "Return of the Chancellor's Foot? Discretion in Permanent Resident Deportation Appeals under the Immigration Act" (1998) 36 Osgoode Hall LJ 245 at 256. https://doi.org/10.60082/2817-5069.1563

161. See Department of Citizenship and Immigration, "Instrument of Designation & Delegation" (6 January 2021), online (pdf): https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/ircc/migration/ircc/english/resources/manuals/il/il3-eng.pdf. For CBSA directions, see Canadian Border Services Agency, "Delegation of Authority and Designations of Officers by the Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness under the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act and the Immigration and Refugee Protection Regulations" (last modified 24 January 2018), online: Government of Canada https://www.cbsa-asfc.gc.ca/agency-agence/actreg-loireg/delegation/irpa-lipr-2016-07-eng.html.

162. On the complexities of discretion, see Colleen M Flood & Jennifer Dolling, "A Historical Map for Administrative Law; There Be Dragons" [Flood & Dolling, "Historical"] in Flood & Sossin 2018, supra note 71, 1 at 37-38.

163. [1999] 2 SCR 817 [Baker].

164. This is the difference between procedural fairness under the common law versus procedural fairness under section 7: Statutory language cannot alter procedural fairness rights under the Charter. See Fox-Decent & Pless, supra note 71; Singh, supra note 30 at 188.

165. Sharryn Aiken & Sheena Scott, "Baker v. Canada and the Rights of Children" (2000) 15 J L & Soc Pol'y 211 at 219. https://doi.org/10.60082/0829-3929.1066

166. Flood & Dolling, "Historical," supra note 162 at 38.

167. Mary Liston, "Administering the Canadian Rule of Law" in Flood & Sossin 2018, supra note 71, 139 at 174 (discussing Doré's contribution to this understanding).

168. Baker, supra note 163 at para 11. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1051-9815(98)00033-3

169. 2002 SCC 3 at para 19 ("In my view, this appeal can be decided by applying principles of administrative law and statutory interpretation, as was the case in this Court's decision in Baker v. Canada") [Chieu]. Chieu was released on the same day as Suresh. See also Audrey Macklin, "The State of Law's Borders and the Law of States' Borders" in Dyzenhaus, supra note 5, 173 at 188-90 (observing that the common law principles of administrative law served Baker better than section 7 of the Charter and contrasting "the situated subject of administrative law and the deracinated constitutional subject").

170. Suresh, supra note 79 at para 130.

171. Peter J Carver, "Shelter From the Storm: A Comment on Suresh v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)" (2002) 40 Alta L Rev 465 https://doi.org/10.29173/alr1376

Audrey Macklin, "Mr. Suresh and the Evil Twin" (2002) 20 Refuge 15 (arguing that the terms of the decision leave the state "wide scope to circumvent the spirit of the judgment"). https://doi.org/10.25071/1920-7336.21269

172. Carver, supra note 171 at 479.

173. See Dauvergne, "Charter Failure," supra note 5 at 690; Suresh, supra note 79 at para 121-30.

174. Charkaoui, supra note 82.

175. Medovarksi, supra note 81 at para 46 [emphasis added]. Others have made compelling arguments about the misreading of Chiarelli and the ill-founded standards of engagement that underwrite section 7 reasoning. See Heckman, supra note 5; Liew & Galloway, supra note 77; Stewart, supra note 77.

176. Charkaoui, supra note 82.

177. Ibid.

178. Kent Roach, "Charkaoui and Bill C-3: Some Implications for Anti-Terrorism Policy and Dialogue Between Courts and Legislatures" (2008) 42 SCLR 281. Charkaoui is often discussed as an instance of judicial comparative law, the Court is widely understood to have described the UK SIAC administrative regime in order to guide the legislature to implement a similar administrative framework. https://doi.org/10.60082/2563-8505.1157

179. Supra note 77.

180. Brown v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), 2020 FCA 130 at paras 71, 72 [Brown].

181. Ibid.

182. Ibid at para 80.

183. Heckman, supra note 5.

184. In the case of some administrative safeguards, such as H&C applications, deportees must pay the fees in order to trigger the exercise of discretion.

185. The removal order may be issued by the Minister's delegate or by the ID. The ID decides whether to issue a removal order based on a quasi-judicial process. Most permanent residents and some foreign nationals with more complicated grounds of inadmissibility will have an ID hearing.

186. This is available only to a small category of people, mostly permanent residents, and not those with a serious inadmissibility. See IRPA, supra note 43, ss 63-65.

187. See IRPA, supra note 43, ss 25 (H&C), 112 (PRRA), 24 (TRP).

188. Ibid, s 24.

189. Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada, "Temporary resident permits (TRPs)" (last modified 22 July 2020), online: Government of Canada https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/publications-manuals/operational-bulletins-manuals/temporary-residents/permits.html.

190. In terms of extra privileges, TRP holders may apply inland for permits, receive access to health care, and apply for permanent resident status after three years. An average of 9,537 TRPs were issued per year from 2014 to 2018, the vast number of which wereissued at ports of entry. See Government of Canada, "Annual Reports to Parliament on Immigration" (2017-2019), online: Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/publications-manuals.html; Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada, "Evaluation of Temporary Resident Permits" (November 2016), online: https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/reports-statistics/evaluations/temporary-resident-permits-2016.html. See also Lorenzo v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), 2016 FC 37 at para 23 (calling the TRP "highly discretionary and exceptional in nature").

191. Kanthasamy, supra note 8.

192. IRPA, supra note 43, s 25.

193. Baker, supra note 163.

194. Guide 5291, supra note 105; Kanthasamy, supra note 8 (confirming hardship is not a standalone test).

195. Removals officers have discretion to wait for the H&C decision.

196. Moretto, supra note 7 at para 8 ("This process seeks to determine whether the removal of a person to their country of nationality would subject them to a danger of torture…to a risk to their life or, in certain circumstances, to a risk of cruel and unusual treatment"). It is concerned with risk determination and therefore plays a much larger role for unsuccessful refugee claimants than for other deportees.

197. IRPA, supra note 43, s 112(1). https://doi.org/10.2307/2914366

198. IRPR, supra note 44, s 232.

199. IRPA, supra note 43, s 113(b); IRPR, supra note 44, s 167.

200. But see IRPA, supra note 43, s 112(3) (providing an exception for serious inadmissibility).

201. IRPA, supra note 43, s 48(2). This provision used to read "as soon as reasonably practicable."

202. Varga v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), 2006 FCA 394 at para 16.

203. Wang v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), 2001 FCT 148 [Wang]

Lewis v Canada (Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness), 2008 FCA 245

Baron v Canada (Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness), 2009 FCA 81

Shpati v Canada (Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness), 2011 FCA 286.

204. Wang, supra note 203 at para 48, cited most recently in Peter v Canada (Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness), 2014 FC 1073 at para 156.

205. Supra note 203 at para 48.

206. Ibid.

207. Forde v Canada (Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness), 2018 FC 1029 at para 3.

208. IRPA, supra note 43, ss 46-47 (setting out loss of permanent resident status).

209. Revell, supra note 7 at paras 50-51.

210. Powell, supra note 94; Stables, supra note 94 at para 56; Torre, supra note 94; Brar, supra note 94.

211. Moretto, supra note 7. Removal falls under the purview of the CBSA, while H&C applications fall under the purview of the IRCC.

212. Applicants may request deferral of removal or file an emergency stay application, but these are not routinely granted. Only foreign nationals may file an H&C application, which means permanent residents subject to removal may only file between the time their removal order comes into force (the moment at which they lose status) and their request for deferral of removal. For someone in Moretto's position, this period was two weeks long.

213. Supra note 160 at 280.

214. Grey, supra note 5 at 136-37 (referring specifically to connections between findings made at the IRB and in the PRRA).

215. The exception to this is the PRRA.

216. This was argued by the applicant in Revell but dismissed by the Federal Court. See supra note 7 at para 112.

217. Moshe Cohen-Eliya & Iddo Porat, Proportionality and Constitutional Culture (Cambridge University Press, 2013) at 132. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139134996

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