Document Type
Article
Abstract
This article draws on Ian Hacking’s idea of “making up people” to reflect on the relationship between development knowledge, practice, and expertise. Using Hacking’s five-part model as a counterpoint to mainstream accounts of development and its tasks, it (re)describes the manner in which development vision informs practice, while practice itself reconstructs the horizon of possibilities for developing states and their populations. The picture that emerges is one of tight interconnections between expertise-driven institutional practice and what we come to see and therefore to “know” about development. It is also one in which iconic figures such as the entrepreneurial woman emerge as products of, and catalysts to, legal and policy reform. Hacking’s model can be productively applied to related projects, illuminating the paths of international (and domestic) rights-based struggles for gender equality. It thus stands to reveal otherwise opaque connections among projects in which law plays a central role.
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Citation Information
Rittich, Kerry.
"“Making Up” with Law in Development."
Osgoode Hall Law Journal
59.1 (2022)
: 1-35.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.60082/2817-5069.3736
https://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/ohlj/vol59/iss1/2
References
1. See Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, translated by Robert Hurley, vol 1 (Pantheon Books, 1978); Michel Foucault, The Birth of Biopolitics: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1978-1979, translated by Graham Burchell (Palgrave Macmillan, 2008).
2. Ian Hacking, "Making Up People," 28 London Review of Books (17 August 2006), online: https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v28/n16/ian-hacking/making-up-people [Hacking, "Making Up People," London Review]. See also Ian Hacking, "Making Up People" in Thomas C Heller et al, eds, Reconstructing Individualism: Autonomy, Individuality, and the Self in Western Thought (Stanford University Press, 1986) 222 [Hacking, "Making Up People," Reconstructing Individualism].
3. Hacking, "Making Up People," London Review, supra note 2, citing Friedrich Nietzsche, The Gay Science, ed by Bernard Williams, translated by Josefine Nauckhoff (Cambridge University Press, 2001) at 70.
4. Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (Yale University Press, 1998).
5. Ibid at 32.
6. Ibid at 24-32.
7. Ibid at 21.
8. Scott himself identifies the large development projects of the World Bank as instances of the high-modernist sensibility that is the ultimate target of his analysis (ibid at 342).
9. See Balakrishnan Rajagopal, International Law from Below: Development, Social Movements and Third World Resistance (Cambridge University Press, 2003) at 105-108. These interlinked events and their explication are major themes in Rajagopal's book. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511494079
10. See World Bank, World Development Report 2000/2001: Attacking Poverty (Oxford University Press, 2001) [World Bank, World Development Report]. For important parts of the intellectual scaffolding for this idea, see Amartya Sen, Development as Freedom (Oxford University Press, 1999).
11. See World Bank, "Governance" (2021), online: https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/governance.
12. See "Markets, States, and Social Opportunity" in Sen, supra note 10, 111; Martha C Nussbaum, Creating Capabilities: The Human Development Approach (Belknap Press, 2011).
13. See World Bank, World Development Report, supra note 10; World Bank, "Human Capital Project" (2021), online: https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/human-capital.
14. See World Bank, "Human Capital Index and Components" (18 October 2018), online: https://www.worldbank.org/en/data/interactive/2018/10/18/human-capital-index-and-components-2018.
15. The term "legal consciousness" aims to capture the language, categories, and terms of engagement accepted as authoritative and used by the professionals within legal cultures at particular moments in time. See "Legal Consciousness" in Duncan Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of Classical Legal Thought (Beard Books, 2006) 1 [Kennedy, The Rise and Fall]
Duncan Kennedy, "Three Globalizations of Law and Legal Thought: 1850-2000" in David M Trubek & Alvaro Santos, eds, The New Law and Economic Development: A Critical Appraisal (Cambridge University Press, 2006) 19 [Kennedy, "Three Globalizations of Law"]. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511754425.002
16. Supra note 2.
17. Hacking, "Making Up People," Reconstructing Individualism, supra note 2 at 222. For further discussion, see also Ian Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge University Press, 1990)[Hacking, The Taming of Chance]; Ian Hacking, Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory (Princeton University Press, 1995) [Hacking, Rewriting the Soul]. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400821686
18. For a detailed exploration of this process, see Ian Hacking, "The looping effects of human kinds" in Dan Sperber, David Premack & Ann James Premack, eds, Causal Cognition: A Multidisciplinary Debate (Oxford University Press, 1995) 351 [Hacking, "Looping effects"].
19. Hacking, "Making Up People," London Review of Books, supra note 2.
20. Ibid [emphasis added].
21. Hacking, "Making Up People," Reconstructing Individualism, supra note 2 at 233.
22. Ibid.
23. As Hacking put it, "Method and reality do not fit by good fortune or preestablished harmony. Each defines the other.…The connection between 'the way the world is' and 'how we find out about it' is one of identity of organic structure [sic]." See Hacking, The Taming of Chance, supra note 17 at 213.
24. Hacking observes, "I see no reason to suppose that we shall ever tell two identical stories of two different instances of making up people." See "Making Up People," Reconstructing Individualism, supra note 2 at 236.
25. See Rajagopal, supra note 9; Sundhya Pahuja, Decolonising International Law: Development, Economic Growth and the Politics of Universality (Cambridge University Press, 2011); Gustavo Esteva, "Development" in Wolfgang Sachs, ed, The Development Dictionary: a guide to knowledge and power (Zed Books, 1992) 6 (referring to a speech by President Harry Truman: "On that day, two billion people became underdeveloped." See ibid at 7).
26. The claim is not, of course, that states are, or were, otherwise treated as equal in the international order. For the classic analysis of this question, see Gerry Simpson, Great Powers and Outlaw States: Unequal Sovereigns in the International Legal Order (Cambridge University Press, 2004).
27. See Antony Anghie, "Time Present and Time Past: Globalization, International Financial Institutions, and the Third World" (2000) 32 NYUJ Intl L & Pol 243.
28. See Hacking, "Making Up People," Reconstructing Individualism, supra note 2 at 226. Hacking writes, "Is making up people intimately linked to control? Is making up people itself of recent origin? The answer to both questions might conceivably be yes" (ibid).
29. For one discussion of conditionalities and their uses, see Franz Christian Ebert, "International financial institutions' approaches to labour law: The Case of the International Monetary Fund" in Adelle Blackett & Anne Trebilcock, eds, Research Handbook on Transnational Labour Law (Edward Elgar, 2015) 124 at 126-27.
30. For an illuminating history of both the colonial origins of development and the prewar move to institutions, see Antony Anghie, "Colonialism and the Birth of International Institutions: Sovereignty, Economy, and the Mandate System of the League of Nations" (2002) 34 NYUJ Intl L & Pol 513.
31. For one discussion of the contestation around this shift within the World Bank, see Robert Wade, "Japan, the World Bank, and the Art of Paradigm Maintenance: The East Asian Miracle in Political Perspective" (1996) 217 New Left Rev 3.
32. For a general introduction and discussion of these issues, see Joseph E Stiglitz and Narcis Serra, eds, The Washington Consensus Reconsidered: Towards a New Global Governance (Oxford University Press, 2008).
33. See e.g. European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, "Agreement Establishing the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development" (30 September 2013), online: https://www.ebrd.com/news/publications/institutional-documents/basic-documents-of-the-ebrd.html.
34. For a discussion, see Ibrahim FI Shihata, "Issues of 'Governance' in Borrowing Members -The Extent of their Relevance Under the Bank's Articles of Agreement" in The World Bank Legal Papers (Martinus Nijhoff, 2000) 245. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004502819_013
35. For a description of these events, see Kerry Rittich, "The Future of Law and Development: Second-Generation Reforms and the Incorporation of the Social" in Trubek & Santos, supra note 15, 203 [Rittich, "Second-Generation Reforms"].
36. Shihata, supra note 34 at 253.
37. See Sally Engle Merry, "Measuring the World: Indicators, Human Rights, and Global Governance" (2011) 52 Current Anthropology 83 https://doi.org/10.1086/657241 Kerry Rittich, "Governing by Measuring: The Millennium Development Goals in Global Governance" [Rittich, "Governing by Measuring"] in Ruth Buchanan & Peer Zumbansen, eds, Law in Transition: Human Rights, Development and Transitional Justice (Hart, 2014) 165 Ruth Buchanan, Kimberly Byers & Kristina Mansveld, "'What Gets Measured Gets Done': Exploring the Social Construction of Globalized Knowledge for Development" in Moshe Hirsch & Andrew Lang, eds, Research Handbook on the Sociology of International Law (Edward Elgar, 2018) 101. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781783474493.00013
38. See World Bank, Doing Business 2020: Comparing Business Regulation in 190 Economies (24 October 2019), online (pdf): https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/75ea67f9-4bcb-5766-ada6-6963a992d64c/content [World Bank, Doing Business]. For a description of the project, see World Bank, "Doing Business: Measuring Business Regulations" (2020), online: https://www.worldbank.org/en/businessready.
39. For discussions of the intellectual and institutional genealogy of the ideas within international economic law on which these metrics are built, see e.g. Anne Orford, "Theorizing Free Trade" in Anne Orford & Florian Hoffmann, eds, The Oxford Handbook of the Theory of International Law (Oxford University Press, 2016) 701; Kerry Rittich, Recharacterizing Restructuring: Law, Distribution and Gender in Market Reform (Kluwer Law International, 2002).
40. For a description of how these indicators are constructed and how they work in the context of labour market governance, see Alvaro Santos, "Labor Flexibility, Legal Reform, and Economic Development" (2009) 50 Va J Intl L 43.
41. Kevin Davis et al, eds, Governance By Indicators: Global Power Through Quantification and Rankings (Oxford University Press, 2012); Rittich, "Governing By Measuring", supra note 37.
42. Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, GA Res 55/25, UNGAOR, 55th Sess, UN Doc A/Res/55/25 (2000) 31, online: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/427192?v=pdf. Article 3 of the Protocol defines trafficking as, "the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs (ibid, art 3(a))."
43. See International Labour Office, Hard to See, Harder to Count: Survey Guidelines to Estimate Forced Labour of Children and Adults (ILO, June 2012).
44. Ibid.
45. See International Labour Office, Profits and Poverty: The Economics of Forced Labour (ILO, May 2014).
46. Ibid.
47. This example and analysis are drawn from Kerry Rittich. See "Representing, Counting, Valuing: Managing Definitional Uncertainty in the Law of Trafficking" in Prabha Kotiswaran, ed, Revisiting the Law and Governance of Trafficking, Forced Labor and Modern Slavery (Cambridge University Press, 2017) 238. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316675809.009
48. Ibid at 246.
49. Ibid at 260.
50. See generally WW Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge University Press, 1960).
51. Rittich, "Second-Generation Reforms," supra note 35 at 203-04.
52. See Sen, supra note 10 at 292-97; Nussbaum, supra note 12; Rittich, "Second-Generation Reforms," supra note 35.
53. See Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, GA Res 70/1, UNGAOR, 70th Sess, Supp no 49, UN Doc A/Res/70/1 (2015), online: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3923923?v=pdf.
54. The term "developing" has been repeatedly challenged in critical development literature, for example through terms such as "underdevelopment." See e.g. Gustavo Esteva & Madhu Suri Prakash, Grassroots Post-Modernism: Remaking the Soil of Cultures (Zed Books, 1988) at 119 Walter Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (Howard University Press, 1981) at 14.
55. See e.g. Daron Acemoglu & James A Robinson, Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty (Crown Business, 2012).
56. "The Equator Principles" (2020), online: https://equator-principles.com/; Calvert Research & Management, "The Calvert Principles for Responsible Investing" (2021), online (pdf): https://www.calvert.com/media/public/34498.pdf.
57. (last visited 8 July 2021), online: https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/human-development-index#/indicies/HDI.
58. Supra note 38.
59. (10 October 2018), online: https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/search/dataset/0038030.
60. Hacking, "Making Up People," London Review of Books, supra note 2.
61. "Conjectural Knowledge: My Solution of the Problem of Induction" (1971) 25 Revue Internationale de Philosophie 167.
62. Hacking, "Making Up People," London Review of Books, supra note 2.
63. See Andrew Lang, World Trade Law after Neoliberalism: Reimagining the Global Economic Order (Oxford University Press, 2011) at 7 [Lang, World Trade Law]. This is akin to the "as if" knowledge described by Lang that grounds the practice of adjudication within the WTO.
64. Among the recent candidates are the lack of development caused by bad governance or the resource curse. See Shihata, supra note 34; Andrew Rosser, "The political economy of the resource curse: a literature survey" (2006) Institute of Development Studies Working Paper No 268, online: https://curate.nd.edu/opendocs/handle/20.500.12413/4061.
65. See Kerry Rittich, "Theorizing International Law and Development" in Anne Orford & Florian Hoffman, eds, The Oxford Handbook of the Theory of International Law (Oxford University Press, 2016) 820 [Rittich, "Theorizing International Law and Development"]. https://doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198701958.003.0041
66. Similar claims are now attached to the successor project, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), although the target number by which the poor are identified has been revised upward and now stands at $1.25 a day. Global Impact, "Sustainable Development Goals" (last visited 8 July 2021), online: Global Impact http://sdgfunds.charity.org/?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIuMGUh5nN6AIViv7jBx1NnANYEAAYAiAAEgK9nvD_BwE.
67. See Lang, supra note 63.
68. For a discussion of the different ways that the aims and possibilities of development are conceptualized within the sub-disciplines of law, see Rittich, "Theorizing International Law and Development," supra note 65.
69. As Hacking observed, "[h]uman kinds are formulated in the hope of immediate or future interventions in the lives of individual human beings. If we change the background conditions we can improve the person, if only we can understand what kind of person we are dealing with." See "Looping effects," supra note 18 at 351.
70. Hacking, "Making Up People," London Review of Books, supra note 2.
71. See e.g. the range of activities undertaken by "the poor," described in Abhijit V Banerjee & Esther Duflo, Poor Economics: A Radical Rethinking of the Way to Fight Global Poverty (Public Affairs, 2011).
72. See Richa Nagar, Hungry Translations: Relearning the World Through Radical Vulnerability (University of Illinois Press, 2019).
73. Rajagopal, supra note 9 at 18.
74. For an account of the popular resistance to the damming of the Narmada River in India, see Arundhati Roy, Power Politics (South End Press, 2001) at 35-86.
75. For one account, see Yanis Varoufakis, Adults in the Room: My Battle with the European and American Deep Establishment (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2017).
76. See Nils Gilman, "The New International Economic Order: A Reintroduction" (2015) 6 Humanity J 1 at 2. https://doi.org/10.1353/hum.2015.0008
77. The World Bank Inspection Panel, described as "an independent complaints mechanism for people and communities who believe that they have been, or are likely to be, adversely affected by a World Bank-funded project," is one such example. See World Bank, "The Inspection Panel" (2021), online: https://www.inspectionpanel.org/.
78. For a recent effort to disrupt mainstream assumptions about development, see Banerjee & Duflo, supra note 71.
79. See Rittich, "Theorizing International Law and Development," supra note 65. On the (claimed) superiority of common law over civil law systems when it comes to generating economic growth, see Rafael La Porta, Florencio Lopez-de-Silanes & Andrei Shleifer, "The Economic Consequences of Legal Origins" (2008) 46 J Econ Lit 285. This claim, in turn, provided the analytic foundation for the construction of the Doing Business indicators on business regulation. See supra note 38 at 325. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.46.2.285
80. Hacking, "Making Up People," London Review of Books, supra note 2.
81. See Shihata, supra note 34 at 248.
82. The Wizard of Oz (Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 1939) at 01:28:45.
83. See Rittich, "Second-Generation Reforms," supra note 35 at 203-205; Rittich, "Theorizing International Law and Development," supra note 65.
84. See e.g. World Bank, World Development Report, supra note 10 at 102-106.
85. This is part of the juridification of politics that is characteristic of the postwar era. For a description and analysis of the general turn, see Kennedy, "Three Globalizations of Law," supra note 15 at 63-70; Duncan Kennedy, "A Political Economy of Contemporary Legality" in Poul F Kjaer, ed, The Law of Political Economy: Transformation in the Function of Law (Cambridge University Press, 2020) 89. See also Ran Hirschl, Towards Juristocracy: The Origins and Consequences of the New Constitutionalism (Harvard University Press, 2004).
86. Governance legalism is a term used to refer to engagements by social activists with regulatory, statutory, administrative, and bureaucratic structures and practices to advance their causes and projects. For a discussion, see Wendy Brown & Janet Halley, "Introduction" [Brown & Halley, "Introduction"] in Wendy Brown & Janet Halley, eds, Left Legalism/Left Critique (Duke University Press, 2002) 1 [Brown & Halley, Left Legalism/Left Critique]. For an in-depth investigation into feminist engagements with legalism, see Janet Halley et al, Governance Feminism: An Introduction (University of Minnesota Press, 2018) [Halley et al, An Introduction]; Janet Halley et al, eds, Governance Feminism: Notes from the Field (University of Minnesota Press, 2019) [Halley et al, Notes from the Field]. See also Karen Engle, Vasuki Nesiah & Dianne Otto, "Feminist Approaches to International Law," (University of Texas Public Law Research Paper No 716, 2021) in Jeffrey Dunoff & Mark Pollack, eds, International Legal Theory: Foundations and Frontiers (Cambridge University Press) [forthcoming], online: dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3820771.
87. See the essays contained in Brown & Halley, Left Legalism/Left Critique, supra note 86; Halley et al, An Introduction, supra note 86; Halley et al, Notes from the Field, supra note 86.
88. See Commission on Legal Empowerment of the Poor, Making the Law Work for Everyone, vol 1, UNDPOR, 2008, online (pdf): https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/files/Making_the_Law_Work_%20for_Everyone.pdf.
89. In a series of recent papers, Andrew Lang distinguishes representational from performative modes of legal analysis, both of which form part of the critical tradition in law. Without taking a position on whether this distinction generally holds within critical thought, this analysis shares with Lang's the desire to put the spotlight on the constitutive or world-making qualities of rights claims and the extent to which legal rules and practices themselves call into being and alter the entities that purportedly form their ground. See Andrew Lang, "Market Anti-naturalisms" in Justin Desautels-Stein & Christopher Tomlins, eds, Searching for Contemporary Legal Thought (Cambridge University Press, 2017) 312; Andrew Lang, "International lawyers and the study of expertise: representationalism and performativity" in Hirsch & Lang, supra note 37, 122.
90. See The Rise and Fall, supra note 15 at 5. For a more recent analysis tracing a related phenomenon, the global circulation of legal thought, see Kennedy, "Three Globalizations of Law," supra note 15.
91. "Three Globalizations of Law," supra note 15.
92. For a collection of key writings, see David Kennedy & William W Fisher III, eds, The Canon of American Legal Thought (Princeton University Press, 2006).
93. See Morton J Horwitz, The Transformation of American Law, 1870-1960: The Crisis of Legal Orthodoxy (Oxford University Press, 1992); Kennedy, The Rise and Fall, supra note 15. As Kennedy describes, the mode of adjudication characteristic of the latter half of the nineteenth century in the United States, employed in the resolution of public, private, and public or private disputes, involved determining the boundaries between "powers absolute within their spheres" (ibid at 3). This mode of adjudication provided a degree of legal validation of laissez-faire economics, which in turn supported the unprecedented expansion and consolidation of corporate power in that era. A challenge to this mode of adjudication, along with the seeds of a future, significantly transformed legal consciousness and can be detected in the dissenting opinion of Justice Holmes in the famous case of Lochner v New York, 198 US 45 (1905) at 74-76.
94. Charlotte Bunch, "Women's Rights as Human Rights: Toward a Re-Vision of Human Rights" (1990) 12 Hum Rts Q 486 at 489. https://doi.org/10.2307/762496
95. Hilary Charlesworth, Christine Chinkin & Shelley Wright, "Feminist Approaches to International Law" (1991) 85 Am J Intl L 613 at 621. https://doi.org/10.2307/2203269
96. See, for example, the foundational article by Charlotte Bunch, where the general argument for recognition of women's human rights quickly slides into a litany of the forms of physical and sexual violence visited on women. Supra note 94.
97. Brown & Halley, "Introduction," supra note 86 at 3 [square brackets in original].
98. Catherine MacKinnon's thought exercised a powerful effect on the style as well as the content of feminist rights-claims. For a detailed excavation of that thought, see Janet Halley, Split Decisions: How and Why to Take a Break from Feminism (Princeton University Press, 2006) [Halley, Split Decisions].
99. See Aihwa Ong, "Strategic Sisterhood or Sisters in Solidarity? Questions of Communitarianism and Citizenship in Asia" (1996) 4 Ind J Global Leg Stud 107.
100. Valentine M Moghadam, "The Fourth World Conference on Women: Dissension and Consensus" (1996) 3 Indian J Gender Studies 93 at 97. https://doi.org/10.1177/097152159600300110
101. Ong, supra note 99 at 113.
102. See Kumari Jayawardena, Feminism and Nationalism in the Third World (Zed Books, 1986).
103. Karen Engle, "Feminist Governance and International Law: From Liberal to Carceral Feminism" in Halley et al, Notes from the Field, supra note 86, 3. https://doi.org/10.5749/j.ctvdjrpfs.4
104. See Dianne Otto, "A Post-Beijing Reflection on the Limitations and Potential of Human Rights Discourse for Women" [Otto, "Post-Beijing Reflection"] in Kelly D Askin & Dorean M Koenig, eds, Women and International Human Rights Law, vol 1 (Transnational, 1999) 115. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004531116_010
105. See Rhonda Copelon, "Recognizing the Egregious in the Everyday: Domestic Violence as Torture" (1994) 25 Colum HRLR 291.
106. See Engle, Nesiah & Otto, supra note 86.
107. See Otto, "Post-Beijing Reflection," supra note 104.
108. See ibid; L Amede Obiora, "Feminism, Globalization, and Culture: After Beijing" (1997) 4 Ind J Global Leg Stud 355; Ong, supra note 99.
109. See Bina Agarwal, "From Mexico 1975 to Beijing 1995" (1996) 3 Indian J https://doi.org/10.1177/097152159600300109 Gender Studies 87.
110. See Ong, supra note 99. For a general statement of the state of the feminist encounter around that time, see Chandra Talpade Mohanty, "Cartographies of Struggle: Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism" in Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Ann Russo & Lourdes Torres, eds, Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism (Indiana University Press, 1991).
111. See Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, 4-15 September 1995, UNGAOR, 1996, UN Doc A/CONF.177/20/Rev.1 (1996) 7 at para 44, online: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/250039?v=pdf; Further actions and initiatives to implement the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, GA Res S-23/3, UNGAOR, 23rd Special Sess, UN Doc A/Res/A-23/3 (2000), online: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/415893?v=pdf.
112. See Karen Engle, The Grip of Sexual Violence in Conflict: Feminist Interventions in International Law (Stanford University Press, 2020).
113. See e.g. Andrew D Mason & Elizabeth M King, Engendering Development: Through Gender Equality in Rights, Resources, and Voice (World Bank & Oxford University Press, 2001), online (pdf): https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/512911468327401785/pdf/multi-page.pdf; Further initiatives for social development, GA Res S-24/2, UNGAOR, 24th Sess, UN Doc A/Res/S-24/2 (2000), online: http://www.un-documents.net/s24r2.htm.
114. See Kerry Rittich, "Engendering Development/Marketing Equality" (2003) 67 Alb L Rev 575 [Rittich, "Engendering Development"].
115. See Dianne Otto, "Holding Up Half the Sky, but for Whose Benefit? A Critical Analysis of the Fourth World Conference on Women" (1996) 6 Austl Fem LJ 7.
116. See Mason & King, supra note 113; Rittich, "Engendering Development," supra note 114.
117. See World Bank, World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development (World Bank, 2011), online: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/entities/publication/51c285f6-0200-590c-97d3-95b937be3271. Some of these diverging conceptions and legal requirements of gender equality are discussed in Kerry Rittich, "Out in the World: Multilevel Governance for Gender Equality" in Ashleigh Barnes, ed, Feminisms of Discontent: Global Contestations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015) 44.
118. See Catharine A MacKinnon, Sexual Harassment of Working Women (Yale University Press, 1979).
119. "Feminism, Marxism, Method and the State: An Agenda for Theory" (1982) 7 Signs 515 https://doi.org/10.1086/493898 "Feminism, Marxism, Method and the State: Toward a Feminist Jurisprudence" (1983) 8 Signs 869. https://doi.org/10.1086/494000
120. For a discussion, see Halley, Split Decisions, supra note 98.
121. This view was considered and rejected by the Supreme Court of Canada. See Janzen v Platy Enterprises Ltd, [1989] 1 SCR 1252 at 1253-54 [Janzen].
122. See Meritor Savings Bank, FSB v Vinson, 106 S Ct 2399 (1986) (US); Janzen, supra note 121.
123. See Halley, Split Decisions, supra note 98 at 290-303 (discussing Oncale v Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc); Oncale v Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc, 118 S Ct 998 (1998) (US).
124. Making this link, see Ginia Bellafante, "Before #MeToo, There Was Catharine A. MacKinnon and Her Book 'Sexual Harassment of Working Women,'" The New York Times (19 March 2018), online: https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/19/books/review/metoo-workplacesexual-harassment-catharine-mackinnon.html. See also Catharine A MacKinnon, "#MeToo Has Done What the Law Could Not," The New York Times (4 February 2018), online: https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/04/opinion/metoo-law-legal-system.html?action=click&module=RelatedCoverage&pgtype=Article®ion=Footer.
125. See Engle, Nesiah & Otto, supra note 86.
126. See Dianne Otto, ed, Queering International Law: Possibilities, Alliances, Complicities, Risks (Routledge, 2018).
127. See David Kennedy, A World of Struggle: How Power, Law, and Expertise Shape Global Political Economy (Princeton University Press, 2016). https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400880591
128. See generally Carole Pateman, The Disorder of Women: Democracy, Feminism and Political Theory (Stanford University Press, 1989).
129. See generally Joan W Scott, "Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis" (1986) 91 Am Hist Rev 1053. https://doi.org/10.2307/1864376
130. See Robin Morgan, ed, Sisterhood is Global: The International Women's Movement Anthology (Feminist Press, 1984).
131. Hacking, "Looping effects," supra note 18.
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